![Sample our Area Studies journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5922/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Area-Studies.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
Following South Sudan's secession in 2011, the country faced significant political, social and economic challenges. The country emerged from a long andarduous nation-building journey, including almost 50 years of violent conflict, that would continue after declaring independence. This nation-building process would suffer a significant set-back in December 2013 when the most recent civil war broke out. This article provides a new perspective on South Sudan's nation-building trajectory that tends towards violence and complicates peace-building. It does so by utilising the leadership process approach from the Leadership Studies literature. While popular literature and commentary tends to fault the South Sudanese elite for the current crisis, there has not been a systematic effort to understand the leadership challenge and its role in conflict, peace and nation-building in South Sudan. In this article, South Sudan's nation-building process and its three primary components of (a) identity construction, (b) statehood and (c) collective will and responsibility, are analysed from a leadership perspective, focusing on issues of power and influence. The conclusion is reached that South Sudan's nation-building has been and will likely continue to trend towards a violent process due to a leadership process that lacks mutuality and is founded on insufficient sources of power.
Acknowledgements
The financial assistance of the National Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences, in collaboration with the South African Humanities Deans Association towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the NIHSS and SAHUDA.
Notes on contributor
Sonja Theron is a post-doctoral fellow in the Department of Political Sciences, University of Pretoria and African Leadership Centre, King's College London. She holds a PhD in Politics from the Department of Political Sciences at the University of Pretoria. In addition, she holds a BA in Journalism and a BA (Hons) in International Relations from the University of Pretoria and an MA in Conflict, Security and Development from King's College, London. She is an alumni of the African Leadership Centre's Peace and Security Fellowship programme, which she completed in 2013. As a member of staff at the University of Pretoria, she taught in the fields of Strategic and Security Studies and International Relations at both under-graduate and post-graduate levels. She also served as a Graduate Teaching Assistant at the African Leadership Centre, King's College London. In addition, Sonja has been involved in various inter-university and inter-disciplinary research projects at the University of Pretoria and the African Leadership Centre on topics relating to peace-building, foreign policy and regionalism. She is a recipient of the NIHSS-SAHUDA Doctoral Scholarship for her PhD studies at the University of Pretoria and the Commonwealth Split-Site (PhD) Scholarship, completed at the African Leadership Centre, King's College London.
Notes
1 Gurtong, 2011, President Kiir's Independence Speech, para 13.
2 United Nations, ‘Statement by Adama Dieng’.
3 Ajak, ‘State Formation etc. in South Sudan’, 2–4; UNMISS, ‘UNMISS Facts and Figures’.
4 Ajak, ‘State Formation etc. in South Sudan’, 8; Kisiangani, ‘Reviewing Options for Peace’, 1–4).
5 See Theron, Understanding Nation-building.
6 For a full discussion on these frameworks and the literature reviewed see: Theron, Understanding Nation-Building.
7 Dandeker, Nationalism and Violence, 3–4.
8 Holsti, International Politics, 58.
9 For examples of literature that has influenced this conceptualization see: Anderson, Imagined Communities, 6–7; Breuilly, Nationalism and the State; Deutsch, ‘Nation-building and National Development,’ 11–2; Eley and Suny, Becoming National, 7, 9–10; Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Hearn, Rethinking Nationalism, 31; Hippler, Nation-Building; Laitin, Nations, States, and Violence, 40; Miller, Citizenship and National Identity, 27, 127; Norman, ‘Thinking through Nationalism,’ 5; Smith, Nationalism and Modernism, 71, 75–6, 83, 196; Ting, ‘Social Construction of Nation,’ 457; Weber , ‘The Nation,’ 22; Weilenmann, ‘The Interlocking of Nation,’ 33, 43.
10 For examples of literature that supports this thesis see: Anderson, Imagined Communities, 4–6; Brubaker, ‘Nationalism reframed,’ 21; Deutsch, ‘Nation-Building and National Development,’ 11; Eley and Suny, Becoming National, 8–9; Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 5–7; Guibernau, The Identity of Nations, 11–5; Hearn, Rethinking Nationalism, 67–92; Hroch, ‘From National Movement,’ 61–8; Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, Chapter 2; Laitin, Nations, States, and Violence, 29–40; Miller, Citizenship and National Identity, 28; Renan, ‘Qu’est-ce qu’une nation?,’ 17; Ting, ‘Social Construction of Nation’; Weber, ‘The Nation,’ 21–3
11 Miller, Citizenship and National Identity, 127–129; Ting, ‘Social Construction of Nation,’ 457.
12 Deutsch, ‘Nation-Building and National Development,’12; Giddens quoted in Smith, Nationalism and Modernism, 71.
13 Miller, Citizenship and National Identity, 27; Weilenmann, ‘The Interlocking of Nation,’ 43; Smith, Nationalism and Modernism, 196.
14 Eley and Suny, Becoming National, 14–6; Guibernau, The Identity of Nations, 12, 15; Hearn, Rethinking Nationalism, 20; Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict; Hroch, ‘From National Movement,’ 63; Hutchinson and Smith, Nationalism, 47–8; Stewart, ‘Horizontal Inequalities and conflict,’ 8.
15 Pierce and Newstrom, Leaders and the Leadership Process, 5–6.
16 Grint, Leadership: A Very Short Introduction; Murphy, ‘A Study of the Leadership Process,’ 674.
17 Ibid., 11–4.
18 Graen and Uhl-Bien, ‘Relationship-based Approach to Leadership’, 223.
19 Oc and Bashshur, ‘Followership, Leadership and Social Influence,’ 919–20.
20 Bass, Handbook of Leadership, 21; Burns, Leadership, 10; Northouse, Leadership: Theory & Practice, 6.
21 French and Raven, ‘The Bases of Social Power,’ 136–41.
22 Hogg, ‘A Social Identity Theory of Leadership.’
23 Ibid., 194.
24 Hollander and Julian, ‘Contemporary Trends,’ 15.
25 Pierce and Newstrom, Leaders and the Leadership Process, 5.
26 Murphy, ‘A Study of the Leadership Process,’ 674
27 Ibid.
28 Peele, ‘Leadership and Politics.’
29 Arnold and Le Riche, From Revolution to Independence, 7–10; Deng, War of Visions, 10; Iyob and Khadiagala, Elusive Quest for Peace, 22.
30 Gray, ‘Introduction’, 1; Sawant, ‘Ethnic Conflict in Sudan’, 345.
31 Ibid., 1.
32 Arnold and Le Riche, From Revolution to Independence, 7–10.
33 The Observer, ‘South Sudan massacres reported’; Oduho and Deng, Problem of the Southern Sudan, 17; Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, 41; Rolandsen, ‘A quick fix?’ 555.
34 This is evidenced in the rhetoric of key documents (e.g. Oduho and Deng, Problem of the Southern Sudan; SANU, ‘Call for African Unity’; South Sudan Resistance Movement, The Anya-Nya Struggle).
35 Deng, War of Visions, 12–3; Sharkey, ‘Arab Identity and Ideology’, 36.
36 Hutchinson, ‘A Curse from God?’ 308; Jok and Hutchinson, ‘Sudan's Prolonged Second Civil War,’ 126, 131; Rolandsen, Guerrilla Government: Political Changes, 38.
37 Johnson, Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars, 37–39.
38 Ibid., 41.
39 Nasong’o and Murunga, ‘Lack of Consensus,’ 59.
40 Copnall, A Poisonous Thorn, 6–8; Young, The Fate of Sudan, Introduction.
41 Idris, Conflict and Politics of Identity, 23; Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War, 22–3; Zambakari, ‘Sudan and South Sudan,’ 73–75.
42 Gray, Some aspects of Islam, 1; Arnold and Le Riche, From Revolution to Independence, 3.
43 Johnson, Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars, 69–70; Khalid, War and Peace in Sudan, 46–7; Sharkey, ‘Arab Identity and Ideology,’ 30; Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War, 32–3, 35–6.
44 Nasong’o and Murunga, ‘Lack of Consensus,’ 66; Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, 50.
45 Ibid.; Ibid., 54–5.
46 Deng, War of Visions, 20; Young, John Garang's Legacy, 539.
47 Garang, Call for Democracy, 26; Novicki ‘Interview: John Garang’; Deng, War of Visions, 20.
48 Johnson, Waging Peace in Sudan, 42–50; Comprehensive Peace Agreement, 3–8.
49 Collins, The Southern Sudan, 23, 29; Deng, War of Visions, 10–1.
50 Ibid., 29–30; Ibid.
51 Deng, Sudan: In Search of Itself, 158; Nasong'o and Murunga, ‘Lack of Consensus,’ 67; Rolandsen, ‘A quick fix?’ 553.
52 Johnson, Waging Peace in Sudan, 177; Young, The Fate of Sudan, 156.
53 Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War, 37–8.
54 Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, 51.
55 Copnall, A Poisonous Thorn, 32; Hutchinson, ‘A Curse from God?’ 308; Jok and Hutchinson, ‘Sudan's Prolonged Second Civil War,’ 126–7, 131; Rolandsen, Guerrilla Government: Political Changes, 38.
56 Jok and Hutchinson, ‘Sudan's Prolonged Second Civil War,’ 125.
57 Deng, War of Visions, 20–1; Jok and Hutchinson, ‘Sudan's Prolonged Second Civil War,’ 125, 128, 136; Rolandsen, Guerrilla Government: Political Changes, 37.
58 Frahm, ‘Making borders,’ 253.
59 Ajak, ‘State Formation etc. in South Sudan,’ 1–5.
60 Frahm, ‘Making borders,’ 253; Johnson, The Untold Story, Chapter 2.
61 Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
62 Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, Chapter 1; Norman, ‘Thinking through Nationalism,’ 5; Weber, ‘The Nation,’ 22.
63 Frahm, ‘Making borders,’ 253.
64 Ibid.
65 Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
66 Hogg, ‘A Social Identity Theory of Leadership’, 189, 194.
67 Johnson, ‘South Sudan: The Untold Story,’ Chapter 4 & 6; Hutchinson and Pendle, ‘Violence, legitimacy and prophecy.’
68 French and Raven, ‘The Bases of Social Power,’ 138–9.
69 Hutchinson and Pendle, ‘Violence, legitimacy and prophecy.’
70 Ibid.
71 Frahm, ‘Making borders,’ 261.
72 Gerenge, ‘South Sudan's December 2013 conflict,’ 98.
73 Ibid, 85, 87; Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
74 Gerenge, ‘South Sudan's December 2013 conflict,’ 87.
75 Ibid., 95.
76 Frahm, ‘Making borders,’ 254.
77 Gerenge, ‘South Sudan's December 2013 conflict,’ 85, 87.
78 Hogg, ‘A Social Identity Theory of Leadership,’ 194.
79 Ibid., 195.
80 Pendle and Hutchinson, Violence, Legitimacy and Prophecy,’ 427; De Vries and Schomerus, ‘South Sudan's Civil War Will Not End with a Peace Deal,’ 337.
81 Hogg, ‘A Social Identity Theory of Leadership,’ 194.
82 Gerenge, ‘South Sudan's December 2013 Conflict,’ 96–7.
83 Frahm, ‘Making Borders,’ 260.
84 Medani, ‘Strife and Secession in Sudan,’ 143.
85 Frahm, ‘Making Borders,’ 260.
86 ICG, ‘Merging Conflicts,’ 10; Gerenge, ‘South Sudan's December 2013 Conflict,’ 96.
87 AUCISS, Final Report; Human Rights Council, Assessment Mission; ICG, ‘Merging Conflicts,’ 10–2; Kisiangani, ‘Reviewing Options for Peace,’ 6–7; UNMISS, A Report on Violations and Abuses.
88 Ajak, ‘State Formation etc. in South Sudan,’ 3.
89 Kisiangani, ‘Reviewing Options for Peace,’ 3.
90 Mylonas defines nation-building as ensuring ‘the boundaries of the state and nation coincide’ (Mylonas, The Politics of Nation-Building, xx).
91 Arnold and Le Riche, From Revolution to Independence, 125; Frahm, ‘Making Borders,’ 255.
92 Ibid., 265–7.
93 Arnold and Le Riche, From Revolution to Independence, 125; Frahm, ‘Making borders,’ 255.
94 Awolich, ‘South Sudan's National Identity Challenge,’ 4; Gerenge, ‘South Sudan's December 2013 Conflict,’ 98–9; Rolandsen, ‘Another Civil War in South Sudan,’ 165.
95 Frahm, ‘Making borders,’ 261; Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
96 Cormack, ‘Borders are Galaxies,’ 522.
97 AUCISS, Final Report, 44–52; Pendle, ‘Interrupting the balance,’ 236–237; Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
98 Pendle, ‘Interrupting the balance,’ 237; Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
99 Cormack, ‘Borders are Galaxies,’ 508.
100 Frahm, ‘Making borders,’ 261.
101 Ibid., 260–1.
102 Pendle, ‘Interrupting the Balance,’ 228.
103 Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
104 Ibid., Pendle, ‘Interrupting the Balance,’ 238.
105 Bereketeab, Redefining National Identity, 312.
106 Frahm, ‘Defining a Nation,’ 31.
107 Ibid.; Frahm, ‘Making Borders,’ 261; Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
108 French and Raven, ‘The Bases of Social Power’, 138–9.
109 Ibid.
110 Van Leeuwen, De Kerkhof and Van Leynseele, ‘Transforming Land Governance’.
111 Pendle, ‘They are Now Community Police.’
112 See Pendle, ‘They are now Community Police,’ for an explanation of the cultural norms that legitimize the titweng and their role as protectors.
113 Kindersley and Rolandsen, ‘Civil War on a Shoestring’; Pendle ‘They are now Community Police.’
114 Weber, ‘Politics as Vocation’, 8.
115 See Pendle, ‘They are now Community Police,’; Kindersley and Rolandsen, ‘Civil War on a Shoestring,’ for examples of this occurring.
116 Pendle, ‘Interrupting the Balance,’ 227.
117 Gerenge, ‘South Sudan's December 2013 Conflict,’ 97–8.
118 Ibid., 100.
119 Awolich, ‘South Sudan's National Identity Challenge,’ 4.
120 Gerenge, ‘South Sudan's December 2013 Conflict, 100.
121 Ajak, ‘State Formation etc. in South Sudan,’ 4; Gerenge, ‘South Sudan's December 2013 Conflict,’ 96.
122 Johnson, The Untold Story, Prologue, Chapter 2; Kisiangani, ‘Reviewing Options for Peace,’ 5.
123 Ajak, ‘State Formation etc. in South Sudan,’ 3; Awolich, ‘South Sudan's National Identity Challenge,’ 9; Reeve, Peace and Conflict Assessment, 53, 56–8; Wilson, ‘Local Peace Processes in Sudan,’ 3, 5–7.
124 Frahm, ‘Making Borders,’ 254.
125 Schultz, ‘There it Will be Better … ’, 314.
126 Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
127 For the purposes of this article civil society refers to ‘institutions that are ‘private’ in that they are independent from government and organized by individuals in pursuit of their own end […] [including] businesses, interest groups, clubs, families and so on. (Heywood, Politics, 8)
128 Ajak, ‘State Formation etc. in South Sudan,’ 5; AUCISS, Final Report, 41–4.
129 Moro, ‘CSOs/CBOs and Faith-Based Organizations,’ 4–5.
130 French and Raven, ‘The Bases of Social Power,’ 137–8.
131 Bass, Handbook of Leadership, 270.
132 Kisiangani, ‘Reviewing Options for Peace,’ 3.
133 Frahm, ‘Making Borders,’ 259; Johnson, The Untold Story, Chapter 2; Kisiangani, ‘Reviewing Options for Peace,’ 4.
134 Ibid., 2, 5; Johnson, The Untold Story, Prologue, Chapter 2.
135 Johnson, The Untold Story, Chapter 2; Frahm, ‘Making Borders,’ 256.
136 De Vries and Schomerus, ‘South Sudan's Civil War Will Not End with a Peace Deal.’
137 Ajak, ‘State Formation etc. in South Sudan,’ 3; AUCISS, Final Report, 38; Awolich, ‘South Sudan's National Identity Challenge,’ 9; Frahm, ‘Making Borders,’ 260.
138 Ajak, ‘State Formation etc. in South Sudan,’ 3.
139 Kisiangani, ‘Reviewing Options for Peace,’ 3.
140 Awolich, ‘South Sudan's National Identity Challenge,’ 9.
141 Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
142 Ibid.
143 Moro, ‘CSOs/CBOs and Faith-Based Organizations,’ 3.
144 Thomas, A Slow Liberation, Chapter 5.
145 Fleischner, Deadly Enterprise, 11–2.