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ABSTRACT
A battery cooling system is proposed for future carbon-free ammonia-based hybrid electric vehicles. In the proposed design, aluminum cold plates with tubes that are filled with liquid ammonia are placed between the batteries in the battery pack. The ammonia evaporates while cooling the plate, which then cools the batteries in the pack. The generated ammonia vapor passes to the vehicle electrical generator where it is used to produce electrical energy for driving the vehicle or charging the batteries. The proposed system was able to perform better than mini-channel liquid cooling systems, air cooling systems, and direct contact boiling systems.
Nomenclature
| a | = | specific interfacial area (m2 m−3) |
| bLi | = | concentration of lithium ions in solid (mol dm−3) |
| bs | = | salt concentration (mol dm−3) |
| bt | = | maximum salt concentration (mol dm−3) |
| bi | = | concentration of salt at layer i (mol dm−3) |
| cp | = | specific heat capacity (kJ kg−1 K−1) |
| Ds | = | salt diffusion coefficient (cm2 s−1) |
| DLi | = | lithium diffusion coefficient in solid electrode (cm2 s−1) |
| E | = | specific energy (Wh kg−1) |
| F | = | Faraday constant (96,485 C mol−1) |
| f | = | conductive filler |
| g | = | gravitational acceleration (9.81 m s−2) |
| I | = | electrical current (A) |
| i2 | = | superficial current density in solution phase (mA cm−2) |
| L | = | Length (m) |
| n | = | number of electrons |
| = | thermal energy rate (W) | |
| Rs | = | radius of positive electrode (m) |
| t | = | time (s) |
| T | = | temperature (°C or K) |
| Voc | = | open circuit voltage (V) |
| V | = | operating voltage of the battery (V) |
| ΔS | = | change in entropy |
| ρ | = | mass density (kg m−3) |
| υ | = | velocity (m s−1) |
| = | volume fraction | |
| φ | = | electrical potential (V) |
| η | = | electrode potential (V) |
| σ | = | solid matrix electronic conductivity (S cm−1) |
| Subscripts | = | |
| b | = | battery |
| gen | = | generation |
| i | = | layer in lithium ion battery |
| J | = | Joule heat |
| + | = | positive electrode |
| 1 | = | solid phase of electrode |
| 2 | = | solution phase of electrode |
| Abbreviations | = | |
| EV | = | electrical vehicle |
| HEV | = | hybrid electrical vehicle |
| PCM | = | phase change material |
Nomenclature
| a | = | specific interfacial area (m2 m−3) |
| bLi | = | concentration of lithium ions in solid (mol dm−3) |
| bs | = | salt concentration (mol dm−3) |
| bt | = | maximum salt concentration (mol dm−3) |
| bi | = | concentration of salt at layer i (mol dm−3) |
| cp | = | specific heat capacity (kJ kg−1 K−1) |
| Ds | = | salt diffusion coefficient (cm2 s−1) |
| DLi | = | lithium diffusion coefficient in solid electrode (cm2 s−1) |
| E | = | specific energy (Wh kg−1) |
| F | = | Faraday constant (96,485 C mol−1) |
| f | = | conductive filler |
| g | = | gravitational acceleration (9.81 m s−2) |
| I | = | electrical current (A) |
| i2 | = | superficial current density in solution phase (mA cm−2) |
| L | = | Length (m) |
| n | = | number of electrons |
| = | thermal energy rate (W) | |
| Rs | = | radius of positive electrode (m) |
| t | = | time (s) |
| T | = | temperature (°C or K) |
| Voc | = | open circuit voltage (V) |
| V | = | operating voltage of the battery (V) |
| ΔS | = | change in entropy |
| ρ | = | mass density (kg m−3) |
| υ | = | velocity (m s−1) |
| = | volume fraction | |
| φ | = | electrical potential (V) |
| η | = | electrode potential (V) |
| σ | = | solid matrix electronic conductivity (S cm−1) |
| Subscripts | = | |
| b | = | battery |
| gen | = | generation |
| i | = | layer in lithium ion battery |
| J | = | Joule heat |
| + | = | positive electrode |
| 1 | = | solid phase of electrode |
| 2 | = | solution phase of electrode |
| Abbreviations | = | |
| EV | = | electrical vehicle |
| HEV | = | hybrid electrical vehicle |
| PCM | = | phase change material |
Acknowledgment
The authors acknowledge the support provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.