Exploring Consumer Acceptance of Insect-based Snack Products in Ireland

ABSTRACT

A significant amount of research has emerged in recent years highlighting the nutritional, economic and environmental benefits of using insects as a food source (entomophagy). This study investigates consumer perceptions toward insect-based snack products in the Republic of Ireland, with the aim of generating insights that would help companies achieve future success with these products in the Irish market. A two-phase mixed methods approach was used: (i) online survey, and (ii) online focus groups and consumer idealized design activity. Findings revealed that although the majority had not consumed an insect-based food product before, there was some willingness to try these products, and preferred carriers and flavor combinations were indicated. Further, although this study confirmed that Irish consumers experience many of the barriers to acceptance identified in previous studies, potential drivers to acceptance were also identified, indicating that these barriers could be overcome through product design, education and effective marketing strategies.

KEYWORDS:

• Entomophagy
• consumer behavior
• Ireland

Introduction

In 2013, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) published a report ‘Edible Insects: Future prospects for food and feed security’ outlining the powerful potential insect consumption (entomophagy) holds with regards to sustainability and human health, stimulating interest and innovation in this novel food category. Since then much research has been conducted investigating entomophagy from a variety of perspectives such as nutrition, development and production, market viability, and consumer perception (Ayensu et al., 2019; Bessa et al., 2020; Dobermann et al., 2017; Videbaek & Grunert, 2020). The entomophagy industry is growing in Western countries, with an increasing number of farms devoted to rearing insects in Europe (Belluco et al., 2017), for example, Ynsect in France and Hexafly in Ireland. Insect-based food products are currently sold in Europe by companies such as Eat Grub, Crické and Bug Farm Foods, however prior to January 2021 widespread sale of these products has been restricted due to EU legislation in relation to novel foods. Regulation (EU) No 2015/2283 formerly allowed for the sale of edible insect products in Belgium, France, Denmark, Finland, U.K and the Netherlands, but restricted their sale for human consumption in Ireland and the rest of Europe. However, after years of lobbying from pro-insect stakeholders across Europe these restrictions have been lifted, as the European Food Safety Authority in January 2021 approved the first authorizations for insects as a novel food in the European Union, confirming that there were no safety concerns regarding consumption of insects (specifically dried yellow mealworm), nor were they nutritionally disadvantageous (Boffey, 2020; EFSA, 2021). This change in legislation will create significant opportunities for insect companies and producers, as it will allow them to sell their products in all EU countries. While nearly 9 million Europeans consumed insects and their derived products in 2019 (IPIFF, 2020), the expected authorization of insects as a novel food and subsequent availability of these products in retail outlets across Europe means that this figure is forecasted to reach a total of 390 million consumers by 2030 (IPIFF, 2020). This study aims to explore consumer acceptance of entomophagy among Irish consumers with the goal of generating new insights into how companies can design and market insect-based food products to increase the likelihood of successful adoption in Western countries such as Ireland.

Literature review

Entomophagy offers various potential benefits for global challenges and issues of importance such as human nutrition, sustainability, food security, global warming and deforestation (Barton et al., 2020; Jensen & Lieberoth, 2019; Puzari, 2021). Insects contain high-quality protein, unsaturated fatty acids, fiber, vitamins and minerals (Barton et al., 2020; Belluco et al., 2013; Verkerk et al., 2007), are both efficient and inexpensive to mass produce (Berger et al., 2018; Van Huis et al., 2013) and are more sustainable to farm than conventional livestock (Barton et al., 2020; Oonincx & De Boer, 2012; Oonincx et al., 2010; Van Huis et al., 2013). However, despite these advantages, negative consumer connotations (particularly Western consumers) related to entomophagy are a significant barrier to widespread acceptance of these products on the Western market, which is problematic for companies producing these products (Barton et al., 2020; Jensen & Lieberoth, 2019). Insects are eaten regularly by an estimated 2 billion people across Asia, Africa and Latin America (Van Huis et al., 2013), but in Western society entomophagy is widely considered a rural and primitive behavior (Caparros Megido et al., 2014).

Early research by Rozin and Fallon (1987) suggests this aversion could be due to an innate primal instinct in humans, aimed at protecting us from eating poisonous or toxic insect species. This theory has been supported by many studies where consumers have raised the issue of edible insects not being hygienic or safe to consume (Balzan et al., 2016; La Barbera et al., 2018; Caparros Megido et al., 2016; House, 2016; Looy et al., 2014; Verbeke, 2015). Rozin and Fallon (1987) also theorize that it could be the reminder of a food’s origin as an animal food (i.e. its “animalness”) that causes Westerners to experience disgust in relation to insects, which would suggest that insect food products would be easier to accept if the insect aspect could be somewhat disguised. This theory has been repeatedly supported by studies from recent years whereby consumers show a higher willingness to eat processed insect-based foods where the insect cannot be seen (e.g., cricket flour used to make cookies) compared to unprocessed samples of whole insects (Gmuer et al., 2016; Lensvelt & Steenbekkers, 2014; Ruby et al., 2015; Schouteten et al., 2016; Sogari, 2015; Tan et al., 2015).

Another possible barrier to acceptance is food neophobia (the fear of new, novel and unfamiliar foods), with Verbeke (2015) suggesting it is one of the most important factors in determining consumers’ readiness to adopt insects as normal food. The food neophobia scale (FNS) was created by Pliner and Hobden (1992) to measure this trait and the instrument has since been used in several insect-related studies (Mancini et al., 2019; Sogari et al., 2019). Researchers however are not in complete agreement about the level of impact food neophobia has on consumer acceptance of insects; while Looy et al. (2014) believe neophobia causes us to view insect cuisine as a “threat to our psychological and cultural identity” (p. 131), a study by La Barbera et al. (2018) showed that disgust affected the willingness to eat insects far more than food neophobia, and Hartmann et al. (2015) believe that this initial fear can easily be overcome through positive food experiences. Research has also shown that food neophobia in relation to insects can be reduced through familiarity, as seen in studies where acceptance became higher when insects were presented in familiar carriers such as muffins and cookies (Tan et al., 2015) and when familiar flavors such as chocolate and paprika were used (Caparros Megido et al., 2014).

While disgust and neophobia can be overcome through concealment of the insect and product carrier or flavor familiarity, research shows that several other factors also affect consumer acceptance of insect-based food products in the west. Various studies have shown that consumers wishing to reduce meat consumption, consumers with an interest in the environment and consumers who value having a healthy diet were all more willing to consume insects (Ruby et al., 2015; Sogari, 2015; Verbeke, 2015). However, many researchers also believe that these benefits alone may not be strong enough to cause Western consumers to incorporate insect-based food products into their regular diet (Berger et al., 2018; Hartmann et al., 2015; Looy & Wood, 2006). This is supported by a number of studies which show the sensory and gastronomic aspects of the insect-based food product (i.e. the quality of the eating experience) have a greater effect on consumer acceptance than the nutritional and environmental benefits (La Barbera et al., 2018; Deroy et al., 2015).

Other factors shown to influence consumer acceptance include demographics such as age and gender. So far there have been contrasting findings in relation to youth, with young people being accepting of insect-based food products in some cases (Verbeke, 2015) but not in others (Hartmann et al., 2015), while many studies have shown a higher acceptance in male consumers (Cicatiello et al., 2016; Palmieri et al., 2019; Verbeke, 2015; Verneau et al., 2016; Wilkinson et al., 2018). Price is another factor that has presented contradictory findings; in one study in the Netherlands consumers were not willing to integrate insect-based food products into their diet habits if they were premium priced (House, 2016), while consumers in an Italian study indicated the opposite, explaining that to them a lower price would suggest poor quality (Balzan et al., 2016).

To date there have been many entomophagy-related studies carried out in European countries such as Italy (Balzan et al., 2016; Cicatiello et al., 2016; Palmieri et al., 2019), Belgium (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Van Thielen et al., 2019) and the Netherlands (House, 2016, 2019; Lensvelt & Steenbekkers, 2014; Tan & House, 2018), but insect-related research has not yet taken place in Ireland. Therefore this study is unique in exploring consumer acceptance of insect-based food products among Irish consumers. The current literature presents many contrasting and contradictory findings, with Payne et al. (2016) suggesting this is likely attributable to differences in the country of study and research design. Therefore gathering data on a country by country basis will likely result in a more contextualized body of research over time. This study is unique to previous research in that it will not be looking through the lens of insects as a substitute for meat, but will instead center around the idea of insect-based food products as snacks. This is because consumers showing reluctance toward insects as an alternative to meat has been a reoccurring finding across several studies (Clarkson et al., 2018; Hoek et al., 2011; Rigter et al., 2016; Tucker, 2014), which led Clarkson et al. (2018) to suggest that a convenient snack may be a more appealing format for Western consumers. Lastly, House (2016) highlights several limitations in the current literature that this study will also aim to address. He points out that while the majority of studies focus on the psychology and preference of the individual consumer, more research is needed with regards to product attributes such as price and product carrier. Also highlighted is the gap in literature in relation to how insect-based food products would become part of consumers’ daily diet habits, as well as the influence social practices may have on overall acceptance of the concept. Finally, he points out that efforts to convert entire populations may be misguided, and that the aim should instead be to successfully gauge a group of “early adopters.” The overall aim of this research therefore is to explore consumer acceptance of entomophagy among Irish consumers with the goal of generating new insights into how companies can design and market insect-based food products to increase the likelihood of successful adoption in Western countries such as Ireland. Specific objectives are as follows:

1. To examine consumer snacking behavior and preferences

2. To examine consumer food neophobia, and perceptions of insect-based snacks

3. To identify insect-based product types and flavors most acceptable to, or desired by consumers.

Methods

This study used a mixed-methods approach, consisting of two stages: (i) an online consumer survey, and (ii) online focus groups which also featured a consumer idealized design (CID) activity. Methods followed for both stages are considered in turn hereafter.

Consumer survey

Sample

Participants were recruited using a convenience, snowball sampling method, as the survey was disseminated online to Republic of Ireland consumers over a three-week period through University College Cork e-mail networks, as well as among the research team’s professional/personal social networks, and respondents were asked to share the survey link to increase coverage. To avoid involvement of vulnerable participants in the research, only consumers aged 18 or over were included. This was ensured by having an age-related survey question which only allowed respondents to proceed if they were 18 or over. All respondents provided informed consent.

Survey design

The consumer survey was made up of three parts with a total of 15 questions. The data was collected using Google Forms as a survey tool and the survey was introduced to respondents by asking them to help further knowledge on “a novel new food source” to reduce bias. Part 1 of the survey featured demographic questions regarding age, gender, level of education and current employment status. Part 2 of the survey featured a validated Food Neophobia Scale (FNS) (Pliner & Hobden, 1992), included to determine food neophobia levels among Irish consumers. The FNS consists of 10 statements with a 7-point Likert scale response (strongly agree to strongly disagree). An average FNS score is computed from responses (ranging from 0–7) with the higher the score indicating the more food neophobic the respondent. The FNS is a commonly used instrument in entomophagy research (e.g., Mancini et al., 2019; Sogari et al., 2019; Ҫinar et al., 2021). Part 3 of the survey examined participant snacking habits, and preferences, and opinions related to insect-based food products. Participants were shown a collection of photos of insect products currently on the market to contextualize questions for any consumers who were unfamiliar with how these products look. They were then asked to rank product attributes for hypothetical products.

Data analysis

SPSS v26 was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics analyzed consumer behavior responses and total FNS score, and multiple regression was used to examine the relationship between respondent demographics and FNS score.

Focus groups

Sample

Participants were recruited by means of convenience sampling, in that an invitation for consumers living in the Republic of Ireland to participate in the focus group was advertised on the researchers professional/personal social media networks. This invitation included information about the research topic and purpose, expected duration and location of focus groups, and contact details for the researcher if interested in participation. Those who indicated their interest were contacted with further details and those who elected to participate signed consent forms prior to participation. Two focus groups were conducted with a total of 15 participants (8 participants in Group 1 and 7 in Group 2). Ten participants were female, and five were male. Participant age ranged from 20–62, with two-thirds of participants in the younger age group (20–35), and the remaining one-third aged 36–62. Gender and age are indicated alongside participant number in the results section.

Data collection

The two focus groups were conducted online due to Covid-19 restrictions at the time of data collection (June 2020). Google Meet was used for data collection and each focus group lasted approximately one hour and were recorded to facilitate transcription. Focus groups followed a semi-structured discussion guide consisting of three parts. Part 1 focused on current associations with entomophagy, which involved gauging participants initial reactions and feelings toward the concept, and their perceptions of the environmental and health benefits associated with entomophagy. Part 2 then focused on participant opinions regarding insect-based snack product attributes and prospective marketing communications, using images of insect snack products that are currently on the market as prompts. Part 3 involved a brief product development activity involving a modified version of Consumer Idealized Design (CID) methodology. CID is a task-orientated method which requires participants to design their own ideal product or service, with the aim of uncovering underlying wants, needs and expectations (Cicatiello et al., 2016; Ciccantelli & Magidson, 1993). During this activity each participant was asked to design their ideal insect-based snack by drawing a sketch of the product using pen and paper. They were then asked to describe product attributes such as product type, flavor, texture, brand name, price and location sold. Upon completion participants were asked to share their design with the group and explain the reasoning behind their attribute choices. Participants were then asked to take a picture of their design and send it to the researcher via e-mail.

Data analysis

Focus group recordings were transcribed and a thematic qualitative analysis was conducted guided by Braun and Clarke's (2006) six-phase framework for thematic analysis. This process involved becoming familiar with the data by reading transcripts, after which transcripts were coded by one researcher in NVivo v.12, and checked by a second researcher. Codes were re-read and content examined to identify themes, and data within themes was considered to identify prominent “sub-themes” or topics discussed under each. Themes were searched for, defined and reviewed by both researchers to increase reliability. CID generally involves participants reaching consensus regarding the type of product they would like to see developed (Cicatiello et al., 2016), however in this adapted CID activity, participants were not asked to reach consensus about one product, and majority consensus regarding attributes was instead noted afterward during analysis using frequency counts.

Results

Consumer survey

A total of 105 consumers living in the Republic of Ireland responded to the survey, 67% of which were female and 33% male. Approximately two-thirds of respondents were in the 18–24 age group and almost 70% were degree educated. 58% were employed either full- or part- time and approximately one-third of the sample were students.

Consumer food neophobia

The average FNS score across the sample was 3.1 (SD =1.2), suggesting this group were more food neophilic than neophobic, as a person is generally determined to be food neophobic only when their FNS score is greater than 4 (Ritchey et al., 2003; Tuorila et al., 1994; Wilkinson et al., 2018). Multiple regression analysis found that there were no significant relationships between FNS score and the demographic variables of age, gender and education.

Consumer snacking behavior and preferences

Approximately half (51%) of respondents indicated that they snacked 1–2 times daily, while over one-third (36%) of respondents snacked 3–4 times daily. One-quarter of participants indicated that they looked for a healthy snack “most or all of the time,” while almost two-thirds (62%) looked for a healthy snack “sometimes.” These findings suggest current market opportunities for healthy snack products in Ireland. Participants were asked to rank of a 5-point Likert scale how appealing (1 = very unappealing – 5 = very appealing) they would find a snack product high in protein, and a snack product which was beneficial for the environment. Mean scores regarding for both the were similar (3.87 for protein appeal and 3.86 for environmental appeal). These findings could be valuable for companies when deciding how to position and market insect food products in Ireland.

Consumer perceptions of and preferences for insect-based snacks

The majority of the sample (80%) had not consumed insect-based products before, while 14% had tried them but not purchased them themselves, and 6% had both purchased and consumed these products. If presented with a sample of insect-based snacks in store, less than half (42%) indicated they would try them. When presented with a summation of the health and environmental benefits of insect-based food products, almost one-third (29%) of participants indicated that these would not change how they feel about the products and they would not be open to trying them. Participants were presented with various product types and flavor combinations and asked to rank these in order according to how likely they were to purchase, with the first ranked item (scored 1) being the one they would be most likely to choose. Table 1 presents the results of consumer indicated preferences. The insect-based snack consumers were most likely to purchase was a protein bar, and the insect-based snack they were least likely to purchase was whole insects. The most popular insect-based energy bar flavors were “Banana and Dark Chocolate” and “Apple and Cinnamon.” The insect-based protein bar flavors participants indicated they were most likely to choose were “Peanut Butter Chocolate Chip” and “Cookie Dough.” The most popular flavor for insect-based crackers was indicated to be “Tomato and Basil,” and the most popular flavors for insect-based crisps were “Salt and Vinegar” and “Sour Cream and Onion.” The final question of the survey asked participants for any other flavor suggestions they may have for an insect-based snack. 27 suggestions were received in total, with “Cheese and onion” being the most suggested (6 times), followed by “Salted caramel” (4 times). It is interesting to note that “Cheese and onion” was the most popular suggestion, as it is a flavor made famous by the Irish “Tayto” brand and would be highly familiar to Irish consumers in particular. This data may be useful to both current and future insect brands looking to enter the Irish market, as it supports previous studies that show consumer acceptance becomes higher when insects are presented with flavors that are familiar to the consumer group (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Tan et al., 2015).

Table 1. Participant indicated likeliness to purchase insect-based products and flavor options

Insect-based product/flavor option	Mean score regarding likeliness to purchase (1 = most likely)
Product
Protein bar	2.70
Cookie	3.12
Crisps	3.30
Energy bar	3.40
Cracker	3.60
Whole insects	4.88
Energy bar
Banana and Dark Chocolate	3.11
Apple and Cinnamon	3.13
Blueberry and Almond	3.54
Banana bread	3.57
Cacao and Coconut	3.75
Orange and Red Berries	3.89
Protein bar
Peanut Butter Chocolate Chip	2.43
Cookie Dough	2.61
Chocolate Fudge Brownie	2.77
Dark Chocolate and Fig	3.54
Apricot, Goji Berry and Chia	3.65
Crackers
Tomato and Basil	1.99
Sunflower and Chia	2.55
Ginger and Chili	2.60
Oregano and Thyme	2.86
Crisps
Salt and Vinegar	2.88
Sour Cream and Onion	3.03
Smoky BBQ	3.10
Peri-Peri	3.76
Sweet Chili and Lime	3.79
Salted Toffee	4.45

Focus groups

Thematic analysis identified two overarching themes across the focus group data: (i) barriers to acceptance and (ii) drivers of acceptance. Results from both themes are presented hereafter, followed by results from the Consumer Idealized Design component of the focus group.

Barriers to acceptance

Some participants indicated that unfamiliarity with the concept of eating insects as being a barrier to consumption:

“It’s just that we’re not used to it, it’s so new that you’d naturally be a bit afraid to try it at first” (P10, Female, 37)

“It’s a fairly foreign concept so I suppose that’s why people would find it scary and weird” (P11, Female, 21)

“It’s not often you’d be like, introducing a whole new type of food to someone, so it’s probably natural to be afraid of it a bit” (P14, Male, 22).

Another indicated barrier was cultural norms, i.e. that insects are not a commonly consumed food in Ireland. These concerns were also related to the threat insects pose to Ireland’s agricultural identity, and also in relation to meat being a traditional staple in the Irish diet.

“My parents wouldn’t go anywhere near that. We’re beef farmers so they would be so against the whole idea” (P5, Female, 23)

“I don’t know, I think older people will stick to their meat and their spuds” (P4, Female, 23).

Participants discussed how opinion of peers may affect whether or not they would consume insect-based products, with one-third of participants saying they would initially feel embarrassed about eating an insect-based food product in front of their peers in work and college:

“I think I would be a bit mortified explaining it to someone” (P11, Female, 21)

“The only way it wouldn’t be embarassing would be if everyone already knew about the product, it would kind of have to be well-known for it not to be weird” (P12, Female, 23).

Participants also expressed concerns about insects being hygenic or safe to consume:

“I feel like they are dirty” (P1, Female, 22)

“Insects to us are dirty creatures” (P5, Female, 23)

“If I knew it was really safe, I’d probably try it then” (P1, Female, 22).

However, other participants contrasted this view, agreeing that they would automatically trust the safety and hygiene of an insect food product it was being sold in any of the major supermarkets or convenience stores in Ireland.

Drivers of acceptance

Curiosity was cited as the primary driver as to why consumers may purchase these products, and related to this a number of participants mentioned having tried insects while on holiday abroad, out of curiosity:

“I feel like I am definitely curious to try these insects, because I was actually very tempted to eat that snail in France. I really wanted to know what it was like, I was really eager to taste it” (P2, Female, 20).

However, some consumers expressed concern that this curiosity would be short-lived and that it would only motivate an initial purchase of the product:

“It’s going to be hard to get long term customers because everyone’s gonna just try it once” (P6, Female, 26)

“I don’t know if people would continue to buy it, cause once you know what it tastes like the fun is kind of over” (P9, Male, 40).

This led participants to discuss the factors that could positively influence consumers to repeat purchase, such as the nutritional and environmental benefits that would be associated with the product. Participants however ultimately considered that the taste and quality of the eating experience that will drive consumers to make repeat purchase:

“It’s like any food, it has to be nice or you won’t go back” (P4, Female, 23)

“If it’s tasty I’d keep buying it. I think I’d forget about what it was if it was tasty” (P7, Female, 51)

“It’s good that they’re healthy and environmentally friendly, but the only way I’d get it again would be if I actually enjoyed it” (P13, Male, 24).

Regarding the types of insect-based foods they would consume, many of the participants suggested that insect-based foods would be most accepted as a snack:

“Because they’re so tiny, I feel like it makes more sense for them to be a snack” (P1, Female, 22)

“Having it as a snack kind of normalises it too, it’s a good way of getting people more comfortable with the idea” (P10, Female, 37).

Focus group participants were shown photos of insect-based products currently available on the market to stimulate discussion regarding product attributes. When asked about the packaging, several participants across both groups pointed out that it was not obvious that these products contained insects, and that this may be an issue for consumers:

“You could definitely pick that up thinking it was something else, it just looks like a regular bag of crisps” (P3, Male, 23)

“There’s such a huge range of those bars now that I would often grab a new one up without reading it that carefully. If I grabbed that quickly I wouldn’t cop that it’s made of crickets!” (P12, Female, 23).

Based on the photos of currently available products shown to participants, the most popular carriers were the protein bars, crisps and crackers:

“I’d say protein bars would sell the best because they’re such a big thing nowadays, they’re handy to grab on the go” (P14, Male, 22).

Participants liked the idea of crisps and crackers as carriers because they said the insect aspect would feel the most disguised. Most participants did not like the cookies as a carrier as they believed you would be losing the nutritional benefit. Further, they considered that the environmental benefit alone of these products would not be enough to sway Irish consumers to purchase. There was some agreement that crisps and crackers would be the most appropriate carriers for children, as they would appeal to parents as healthy lunchbox fillers, while the protein bars would be more suited to college students who would be looking for a more substantial snack to grab on the go.

When asked about price, the large majority of Irish participants across both groups were of the opinion that the price should aim to match the corresponding best seller in the chosen category (i.e. an insect protein bar should be priced the same as a Fulfil protein bar). Several participants also agreed that undercutting the competition could deter consumers as it may create the perception of a lower quality product:

“If you already have this idea that insects are dirty and not safe to eat, I think a low price would reinforce that idea of bad quality in your head” (P12, Female, 23).

Regarding targeting of the product there was strong consensus among participants that older consumers would be the least likely to purchase an insect-based snack and that young people would therefore be the best demographic to target:

“It would have to be targeted towards the young generation” (P8, Male, 54)

“Older Irish people can be very set in their ways” (P2, Female, 20)

“I know all my aunts or uncles would not go next or near one” (P6, Female, 26).

Both groups of participants suggested that children and college students would be the best markets to focus on. Children in particular were believed to be the most open-minded and that introducing this concept at an early age would normalize the idea for up and coming generations:

“If you get to them young and make it fun and normal they’ll be way more likely to keep eating it as they get older I think” (P11, Female, 21)

These products were also considered to perhaps appeal to those with an active lifestyle due to their health and environmental benefits:

“So many Irish people are into their diet and fitness these days, especially young people because we see it all over Instagram, so if insects have loads of protein and vitamins that kind of fits perfectly into that lifestyle” (P12, Female, 23)

“I feel like people who love cycling and climbing mountains, outdoorsy people, would be perfect, because they’re always in nature so they probably care about the environment, and they’re fit so they’ll care about eating healthy too” (P9, Male, 40).

The discussions were then led onto promotional and positioning strategies, by asking participants how they would want to find out about these products and what aspects of the concept should be pushed the most. All participants agreed that the nutritional and environmental benefits need to be the major elements in promotion, as the large majority admitted they had never heard of these benefits prior to taking part in the consumer survey. When looking at the photos of insect products currently on the market, several participants also pointed out that while it was clear the products were high in protein, it was much less obvious that they were high in vitamins and minerals:

“I think the vitamins and minerals would actually be a big selling point for people, especially if it’s a parent buying snacks for their kids” (P10, Female, 37).

When discussing product launches, participants suggested that social proof could be a useful factor for increasing acceptability of the product:

“Because it’s such a weird thing, I think you would need like a big promotion of giving out samples to lots of people all at once. I know that if I was in college and saw everyone else trying one I would be way more likely to try it out too” (P12, Female, 23)

“If you were going with the kids as the target market you could take it into summer camps and schools, so they’d be trying it with all their friends and it would freak them out less” (P14, Male, 22).

Participants in both groups further suggested that using Irish influencers on Instagram could be a very effective way of promoting a new insect brand and increasing consumer acceptance of the concept.

Consumer Idealized Design activity

The final part of the focus group sessions was based on the concept of CID (Ciccantelli & Magidson, 1993), where each participant was asked to draw out their ideal insect-based snack and describe the various attributes they would assign to this product. Table 2 shows each of the 15 individual designs and summarizes the corresponding product attributes within the categories of product carrier, flavor, texture, price, brand name and the location at which the product would be sold.

Table 2. Consumer Idealized Design of participants ideal insect-based snack product

Insect-snack product	Product attributes

Carrier

The most popular carrier was the protein bar (46%), followed closely by crisps (33%). The other carriers included crackers, a cookie and an energy ball. It is worth noting that none of the participants chose to use whole insects as their carrier, as this aligns with many of the previous studies in which consumers were shown to prefer processed insect-based products with familiar carriers over unprocessed whole insects (Hartmann et al., 2015; Tan et al., 2015).

Flavor

The flavor category can be divided into sweet flavors (bars, cookies and energy ball) and savory flavors (crisps and crackers). Previous research has identified that chocolate has a positive effect on consumers’ taste expectations of insect food products (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Schösler et al., 2012), and in the CID carried out by Clarkson et al. (2018) it was found that chocolate featured in 46% of the designed products. This study presented similar findings, with 50% of participants choosing to use chocolate in their insect snack products. Salted caramel was also a very popular sweet flavor as it was used three times for protein bars. It is interesting to note that when asked to explain their designs, several of the participants said they took inspiration from Irish brand Fulfil’s range of protein bars. This also occurred with the savory flavors, as participants said they chose their crisp flavors (“smoky bacon” and “salt and vinegar”) based on flavors from Irish brand Tayto. This again suggests that using familiarity and known flavors could play an important role in consumer acceptance of insect food products.

Texture

The most used word to describe the texture of an ideal insect-based snack was “crunchy” (53% of products) and this word was also featured in the brand names of two products (“Crunchies” and “Cricket Crunch”). This is similar to the findings of Clarkson et al. (2018), where participants made several references to a crunchy texture being desirable.

Price

The majority of participants’ prospective pricing strategies for their hypothetical product involved matching the standard pricing for their corresponding product category. Only one participant chose to have a luxury product that would be premium priced, which contrasts with the findings of Clarkson et al. (2018) where the majority of participants chose for their products to be premium priced.

Brand name and packaging

60% of participants referred to the word “cricket” in their brand names, which would suggest the cricket may be the most acceptable insect to use for an insect-based snack product. Previous research has also suggested that insect imagery on the packaging can deter consumers (De-magistris et al., 2015; Hartmann et al., 2015), however in this study insect images were included on 80% of consumer designs.

Location sold

53% of participants chose to sell their product in convenience stores/petrol stations, while only one participant chose for their product to be sold in a health shop. This is in contrast to the findings presented by Clarkson et al. (2018), where most products were chosen to be sold in supermarkets and health stores.

Discussion

Research to date has highlighted that disgust, food neophobia, culture and hygiene concerns are amongst the most common barriers to consumer acceptance of entomophagy in the west (Balzan et al., 2016; La Barbera et al., 2018; Caparros Megido et al., 2016; House, 2016; Looy et al., 2014; Verbeke, 2015). While these concerns were indicated during the focus groups, further focus group discussion and survey data (such as lower than average FNS scores) indicated that these barriers could be overcome through product design, education and effective marketing strategies.

Several studies from recent years have shown that Western consumers display a reluctance toward the idea of consuming insects as an alternative to meat (Clarkson et al., 2018; Hoek et al., 2011; Rigter et al., 2016; Tucker, 2014), leading to a suggestion by Clarkson et al. (2018) that a convenient snack product may be a more accepted format in the West. The findings of this study are fully in support of this, as major concerns about meat substitution were raised by the Irish focus group participants. Based on this, further focus group discussion, CID results and survey data on snacking habits, it can be concluded from this study that insect food products have the highest likelihood of success in the Irish market when designed in the format of a convenient snack.

Results from each element of this study indicate that protein bars are the overall most popular carrier for an insect snack product amongst Irish consumers. Crisps and crackers were the next most popular choices, while cookies presented contrasting findings across the different parts of the research. Whole insects were by far the least popular carrier overall, which supports the majority of research to date that insects are more accepted by Western consumers in the form of a processed ingredient (Gmuer et al., 2016; Hartmann et al., 2015; Lensvelt & Steenbekkers, 2014; Lucchese-Cheung et al., 2020; Ruby et al., 2015; Schouteten et al., 2016; Sogari, 2015; Tan et al., 2015).

The use of familiar flavors has been shown to reduce the level of food neophobia consumers experience in relation to entomophagy (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Tan et al., 2015). The findings of this study support this as Irish participants displayed a strong tendency toward familiar flavors (particularly flavors used by Irish branded products) in the survey, focus group rand CID results.

Previous studies have hypothesized that the quality of the eating experience will be one of the biggest determinants of success for insect-based food products in the West (La Barbera et al., 2018; Deroy et al., 2015; Hartmann et al., 2015). Evidence from this study supports this as Irish focus group participants highlighted that taste and texture would be the most influential factors in their decision to repeat purchase an insect snack product after an initial trial. Therefore it is recommended that companies place a large focus on the sensory attributes of the product during the New Product Development process to ensure the taste and texture of their product is appealing to consumers, and thereby help overcome issues of food neophobia (Goulart et al., 2020).

Past research suggests that including an image of an insect on the packaging can be off-putting to consumers (De-magistris et al., 2015; Hartmann et al., 2015). However, participants in this study were in favor of some form of visual representation of the insect ingredient so that consumers would be able to clearly identify and distinguish insect snack products from non-insect snack products. This was supported by CID results where insect images were included on the packaging of 80% of participant designs. Therefore it is recommended that further research considers the appropriateness and acceptability of an insect image or logo on the packaging, and that at minimum the packaging should clearly indicate (e.g., via the name or product description) the presence of this ingredient.

While some studies advocate for insect food products to be premium priced to indicate higher quality (Balzan et al., 2016), others have shown higher prices to be a deterrent for Western consumers (House, 2016). Focus group participants in this study agreed that lower prices would create a perception of poor quality, however further discussion and CID results indicated that a strategy of matching competitor prices would be more effective than premium pricing.

While past research has presented mixed findings in relation to targeting certain age groups (Hartmann et al., 2015; Verbeke, 2015), focus group participants in this study considered that young people would be more likely to purchase an insect-based snack product than older consumers. Participants were of the opinion that college students, young children and active consumers would be suitable target markets.

Survey data from this study indicates that snacks which are high in protein and environmentally friendly are very appealing to Irish consumers, however focus group participants pointed out that they were unaware that these benefits applied to insect food products prior to engaging in the consumer survey. Further survey data and focus group discussion revealed that knowing about these benefits made participants feel more open to the idea of entomophagy, a finding which has also appeared in previous studies to date (Schösler et al., 2012; Verneau et al., 2016). Therefore it is recommended that companies place a large emphasis on educating consumers about these benefits as part of their marketing and promotion, as knowledge of these unique selling points is likely to lead to greater consumer acceptance of insect snack products in Ireland.

Previous studies have shown that once consumers have tried an insect food product they are much more likely to consume it again in the future (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Martins & Pliner, 2006; Sogari et al., 2019). This was supported by survey data in this study which showed Irish consumers who had eaten insects before showed a high willingness to try the insect snack sample. It is therefore recommended that when launching in Ireland, companies should place an important focus on attracting consumers to try an initial product sample. When asked about the types of promotional strategies that could facilitate this, focus group participants believed that a product launch in a busy area with high footfall (such as a college campus) would be highly effective, as seeing others trying the sample would help to reduce initial food neophobia. Participants also suggested that companies use Irish influencers (fitness influencers in particular) to promote their insect snack product on social media, as this would be a way of increasing consumer trust and familiarity with the brand and the concept of entomophagy in general.

Limitations

This study does not claim to be representative of the Irish population as a whole, and sample size and nature was impacted by sampling constraints during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is acknowledged that there is a high proportion of educated consumers in the sample, and a greater proportion of respondents were in younger age categories (i.e. 18–35). These figures are likely due to the distribution of the survey through University College Cork e-mail networks and the researcher’s professional/personal social networks, and accord with previous findings that younger age groups in Ireland and elsewhere are more likely to use social media than older age groups (Auxier & Anderson, 2021; Statistica, 2020, 2021). This large representation of higher educated consumers is also common among other entomophagy-related studies in Europe (Cicatiello et al., 2016; Palmieri et al., 2019). There is also a fairly high proportion of females in the sample, which may have slightly biased results as previous study has found that males are more likely to be more adventurous regarding entomophagy than females (Harren, 2015; Tuccillo et al., 2020). Data regarding whether participants were urban or rural dwellers was not collected, therefore the impact of this variable could not be explored, however data, particularly that from the focus group discussions indicate that both groups were represented.

Future research

This study has explored consumer acceptance of entomophagy amongst Irish consumers, while also addressing several of the research gaps that previously existed in relation to product attributes, daily diet habits and early adopters. It is recommended that future research is conducted in Ireland with larger sample sizes and greater equality of age groups, as this would lead to a more accurate representation of the Irish consumer group as a whole. It is also recommended that exploratory research is conducted with young children in relation to insect snack products, as participants in this study identified this demographic as potentially being very open minded to the concept, while also suggesting that exposure to these products at a young age would help normalize entomophagy for future generations. This study was conducted among consumers in the Republic of Ireland, but it is assumed to have applicability to consumers in the UK and other developed regions with similar consumer demographic profiles, norms and trends. It is therefore recommended that further study is conducted with consumers in other regions such as the UK, to confirm and broaden the applicability of the findings for both UK and Irish manufacturers and distributors of insect-based food products.

Conclusion

To conclude, this study aimed to generate new insights into how companies can design and market insect-based snacks to increase the likelihood of consumer acceptance in Western countries such as Ireland. Findings indicate that the most acceptable insect-based snack product for Irish consumers would be a protein bar with a familiar flavor, priced competitively and positioned as a convenient snack. Further study is recommended to confirm and refine these findings, for example, conjoint analysis and/or sensory analysis studies. Findings indicate that promotion of insect-based products should be centered around educating consumers on their nutritional and environmental benefits, should make use of sample tastings to increase familiarity, and should use known Irish social media influencers to increase trust. Young people show the most potential as a target demographic, while the most likely consumers to become early adopters are fitness-oriented males who engage in the gym or outdoor sports and activities.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).