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Articles

Philip II and Indigenous Access to Royal Justice: Considering the Process of Decision-Making in the Spanish Empire

Pages 505-524 | Published online: 04 May 2016
 

Acknowledgements

A preliminary version of this article was presented in Frankfurt, on 16 September 2013. I wish to thank the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History and its director, Dr. Thomas Duve, for granting me the fellowship that enabled me to elaborate the present essay. I also wish to thank Alistair McCreadie for translating it. I am very grateful to Renzo Honores and the two anonymous referees from CLAR for their valuable comments and suggestions.

Notes on contributor

Caroline Cunill, agrégée in Hispanic Literature and Civilization since 2003, received her Ph.D. in Latin American History from the University of Toulouse in 2011. She is currently Assistant Professor at the University of Le Mans. In the course of her research, she has received scholarships from the Académie Française and the Max Planck Institute for European Legal Studies. From 2013–2014, she held a postdoctoral position at the Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas (UNAM). In addition to her monograph Los Defensores de Indios de Yucatán y el acceso de los mayas a la justicia colonial (2012), she has published articles in Colonial Latin American Review, Journal de la Société des Américanistes, Anuario de Estudios Americanos, Historia Mexicana, and Colonial Latin American Historical Review.

Notes

1. ‘Memorial del licenciado Bustamante, teniente que fue del gobernador de Yucatán, suplicando se vea toda, que informa de cosas muy cumplideras al servicio de Su Majestad,’ Mérida, 4 April 1587. Archivo General de Indias [AGI], México, 359, R. 7, N. 32.

2. Indeed, as Heredia Herrera explains, many consultations form part of ‘files on issues or matters already resolved, to which they were attached as supplementary information’ (1972, 1:2).

3. ‘Cédula que manda se quiten y consuman todos los protectores de indios y la Audiencia tenga a cargo de ampararlos y el fiscal de defenderlos,’ Lisbon, 27 May 27 1582, in Encinas Citation1946, 4:333. With reference to this document, see Borah Citation1996, 353. It is worthy of note that the decree dated to 1582, but took effect in Yucatán only in 1586 (Cunill Citation2012a, 132–36).

4. See, for example, Friede Citation1953, Hanke Citation1968 and 1971, Bataillon and Saint-Lu Citation1976.

5. See Cutter Citation1986, 1995, and 1997, Kellogg Citation1995, Rappaport and Cummins Citation1998, Honores Citation2003, Devineau Citation2004, Poloni-Simard Citation2005, Puente Brunke Citation2005, Owensby Citation2008 and 2011, Ruiz Medrano and Kellogg Citation2010, Traslosheros and Zaballa Beascoechea 2010, Yannakakis Citation2008 and 2013, Zaballa Beascoechea Citation2011, Cunill Citation2012b, among others.

6. With regard to the role of transatlantic networks in the governance of the Spanish Empire, see Parker Citation2001, Elliott Citation2006, Mazín Gómez Citation2007, Glave Testino 2008a and b, Daniels and Kennedy 2008, Muñoz Lacueva and Cunill Citation2010, Puente Luna Citation2006 and 2014.

7. See Parker Citation1998 and 2001, Román Gutiérrez and Martínez Ruiz 2002, Escudero Citation2002, and Schäfer Citation2003, 258–91.

8. On Mateo Vázquez de Leca, see Lovett Citation1977, Parker Citation1998, and Poole Citation2011, 48–53.

9. Petition by Bustamante, Mérida, 4 April 1587, cit.

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid.

12. Real Díaz also notes that petitions were ‘the direct origin, strictly speaking, of many documents’ and that part of the content of legal texts was set forth ‘in the clause referred to as exposition of motives or preface’ (1991, 59).

13. ‘Cédula que manda se quiten y consuman todos los protectores de indios,’ Lisbon, 27 May 1582, cit.

14. ‘Real cédula al gobernador de Chile que envíe razón sobre que se ha entendido que los indios reciben agravios de los protectores y en el entretanto provea lo que convenga y quite los dichos protectores y no consienta el servicio personal,’ Lisbon, 25 September 1581, cited by Jara Citation1961, 113. With reference to the suspension of the defender at La Plata and Quito, see Colección de documentos 1867, 18:533, and Mora Citation1944, 106. The suspension decree sent to New Spain was compiled by Encinas Citation1946, 4:333.

15. On those topics, see Manzano Manzano Citation1970, Sánchez Bella Citation1987, and Poole Citation2011, 116–38. With reference to the Geographic Relations, see Cline Citation1972, Acuña Citation1982–1986, Solano and Ponce Leiva 1988.

16. For a more detailed discussion of the pressure that Las Casas and his followers, on the one hand, and Rome, on the other, brought to bear on the Spanish Crown in 1566, see Poole Citation2011, 104–5 and 111–14. Pedro Borges (Citation1960, 131–37) reproduces the memorial submitted to the Council of the Indies by Alonso Maldonado in 1566. On the pro-Indian party, see Friede Citation1952 and 1953.

17. Poole notes that the ‘two moving spirits behind the junta were Cardinal Espinosa who, as president of the Council of Castile, was the presiding officer, and Ovando’ (2011, 129).

18. ‘Testimonio del licenciado Cristóbal Ayala de Espinosa,’ 23 December 1567, British Library (BL), Additional Manuscripts, 33983, ff. 195r–98v. ‘Testimonio de fray Francisco de Morales,’ 2 January 1568, BL, Additional Manuscripts, 33983, f. 256r. Both documents are cited by Poole Citation2011, 128.

19. The main documents produced during the Junta Magna can be found in the Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan, Madrid, Spain (IVDJ). See Lovett Citation1973, 255–61, and Poole Citation2011, 131–32.

20. ‘Ordenanzas para la formación del libro de las descripciones de Indias,’ San Lorenzo del Escorial, 3 July 1573, in Solano and Ponce Leiva 1988, 19, 22–23, 25, and 31–32.

21. ‘Real cédula a Martín Enríquez, virrey del Perú, mandándole que envíe al Consejo de Indias una información completa de las usos y costumbres que en materia de justicia tenían los indios antes de la conquista española, pues por ellos deben regirse,’ Badajoz, 23 September 1580. AGI, Indiferente General, 427, L. 30, ff. 323r–24r, also published by Konetzke Citation1953, 1:529–30. A note in the margin states that ‘other such decrees have been dispatched to the other royal courts and governors of the Indies.’ Indeed, Encinas makes reference to a document of this nature, entitled ‘capítulo de la instrucción que se da a los virreyes del Perú que manda se informe de la manera de gobernación que tienen entre sí los indios y envíe relación’ (1946, 4:356–57). The 1577 questionnaire had been published by Solano and Ponce Leiva (1988, 79–87) under the title ‘Cédula, instrucción y memoria para la formación de las relaciones y descripciones de los pueblos de Indias.’

22. ‘Real cédula a Martín Enríquez, virrey del Perú, mandándole hacer una relación de todos los pueblos españoles e indios del distrito de su jurisdicción, de la forma en que se administra en ellos justicia, y del ejercicio, jurisdicción y salario de los cargos de corregidores, alcaldes mayores, regidores perpetuos y otros oficios, sus títulos y nombramientos y el tiempo que los ejercen, y que envíe dicha relación junto con la de los oficios que estén vacantes al Consejo de Indias,’ Portalegre, 5 March 1581. The decree was for the Indies in general. AGI, Indiferente General, 427, L. 30, ff. 328v–29v.

23. ‘Real cédula en que se aprueba a los indios lo que tienen ordenando cerca de elegir gobernador y justicia,’ Valladolid, 5 August 1555, in Encinas Citation1946, 4:356. With reference to the customary law and its implication for native people, see Manzano Manzano Citation1967, González de San Segundo Citation1995 and 2011, and Honores Citation2014.

24. With reference with the role played by Gaspar Antonio Chi in the drafting of the relations of Yucatán, see Mercedes de la Garza's introduction to the Relaciones histórico-geográficas de Yucatán (1982, 1:x–xxviii). Walter Mignolo (Citation1987) also demonstrated the connection that existed between the questionnaires of 1577 and the report of Tlaxcala.

25. The royal decree was published by Levillier Citation1924, 9:268–69.

26. ‘Sobre las cosas que según memorial de fray Pedro Mártir, provincial de la Orden de Santo Domingo, conviene remediar en Indias acerca del buen gobierno y trato de los indios. Acompaña unas advertencias de cosas de Indias que tiene necesidad de remediar,’ Madrid, 24 April 1581. AGI, Santa Fe, 1, N. 28, 10 ff.

27. Ibid.

28. Consultation dated 8 May 1581, cited by Heredia Herrera (Citation1972, 1:321). AGI, Indiferente General, 739, N. 325, 2 ff.

29. Consultation dated 29 July 1581, cited by Heredia Herrera (Citation1972, 1:334–35). AGI, Indiferente General, 739, N. 349, 2 ff.

30. As noted by Parker (Citation1998, 27), the power of the king's secretaries, especially of its private secretary Mateo Vázquez, must have been greater during this period. In a billete [internal memoranda] of 13 May 1583 the monarch said: ‘We will see this matter concerning the Indies tomorrow, yet it is quite convoluted in the same way that things are going here,’ in Riba García Citation1959, 278.

31. On the topic of factionalism and, more generally, on the role of the royal courts in the exercise of monarchical power in Spain, see Lovett Citation1973 and 1977, Martínez Millán Citation1989, 1992, and 1994, Quijada and Bustamante Citation2002, and, for a European perspective, see Michon Citation2012.

32. With reference to the ordinances for the Indian defender of Peru, see Ruigómez Gómez Citation1988. In 1573 Toledo had recommended the appointment of an Indian Protector in the Council of the Indies. ‘Carta del virrey Toledo al monarca,’ La Plata, 30 November 1573, in Levillier Citation1924, 5:225–26.

33. ‘Carta de los vecinos conquistadores de la ciudad de Tunja en que informan a favor de los religiosos de aquella ciudad sobre todo de los dominicos y su provincial fray Pedro Mártir,’ Tunja, 1 November 1582. AGI, Santa Fe, 66, N. 89, 2 ff. ‘Relación hecha por un natural del Nuevo Reino de Granada por la que describe el estado en que se hallaba la conversión de aquellos miserables indios y la vejación y trabajos que padecían, anónimo,’ 1584. AGI, Patronato, 231, N. 6, R. 5, 12 ff.

34. Consultation dated 7 October 1581. AGI, Indiferente General, 739, N. 370, 4 ff.

35. ‘Real cédula a la Audiencia de México mandándoles que le envíen relación sobre las tasas de tributos que se les imponen a los indios y no permitan que les hagan pagar por los indios muertos o ausentes,’ Lisbon, 27 May 1582. AGI, Indiferente General, 427, L. 30, f. 340.

36. ‘Real cédula al presidente y oidores de la Audiencia de México mandándoles que se informen sobre los corregidores y alcaldes mayores de dicho distrito culpables de haber maltratado a los indios y les castiguen con rigor y que no permitan que se les obliguen al servicio personal vigilando que se cumplan las cédulas dadas a su favor,’ Lisbon, 27 May 1582. AGI, Indiferente General, 427, L. 30, f. 340v.

37. ‘Real cédula al presidente y oidores de la Audiencia de Santa Fe de Nueva Granada mandándoles que pongan en ejecución las disposiciones provistas a favor de los indios y que castiguen con rigor a los encomenderos y administradores que les maltraten, pues son encargados y responsables de su defensa y que envíen una información de cómo se les administra la justicia,’ Lisbon, 27 May 1582. AGI, Indiferente General, 427, L. 30, ff. 344v–45r.

38. ‘Real cédula al presidente y oidores de la Audiencia de Santa Fe de Nueva Granada mandándoles que envíen relación sobre los agravios que reciben los indios de dicho distrito y sobre la conveniencia de enviar un visitador para remediarlo y que castiguen con rigor a los que les maltraten,’ Lisbon, 11 June 1582. AGI, Indiferente General, 427, L. 30, f. 347r.

39. ‘Real cédula al arzobispo de México encargándole que vigile el cumplimiento de las provisiones enviadas a los virreyes audiencias y gobernadores a favor de los indios, y, si ve que no se cumplen, avise al rey para que ponga remedio,’ Lisbon, 27 May 1582. AGI, Indiferente General, 427, L. 30, ff. 345v–46v, also reproduced in Encinas Citation1946, 4:266.

40. ‘Cosas que se avisan y suplican,’ Mexico, 16 October 1585, in Llaguno Citation1962, 319.

41. As is the case for all other documents cited until now, the suspension decree is on file at the general registry where the decree notifications valid for all American territories are located. AGI, Indiferente General, 427, L. 30, f. 342v.

42. ‘Real cédula para que los intérpretes de los indios tengan las partes y calidades necesarias y se les pague el salario de gastos de justicia, estrados o penas de cámara,’ Aranjuez, 10 May 1583, in Recopilación de Leyes de Indias, Book II, Title 29, Law 1. Regarding the matter of interpreting, see Cunill Citation2013, Yannakakis Citation2014, and Puente Luna Citation2014.

43. ‘Antonio Nieto, vecino de la ciudad de Mérida de la provincia de Yucatán, intérprete general de los indios de la dicha provincia, sobre que se le confirme cierta ayuda de costa y otras cosas,’ 1595. AGI, México, 116, R. 3.

44. ‘Carta de fray Pedro Juárez de Escóbar a Felipe II sobre el gobierno de las Indias,’ undated, in Colección de documentos 9:198. This letter must be after 1573, since the author explained that, at this time, there were two archbishoprics in Mexico, two bishoprics in Tlaxcala, one in Oaxaca, two in Chiapas, two in Yucatán, and one in Jalisco.

45. ‘Respuesta de Alonso Palomino a las acusaciones de Rodrigo Pérez de Ribera, Santa María de la Victoria,’ 31 March 1590, ‘en el pleito de Rodrigo Pérez de Ribera contra Alonso Palomino.’ Archivo General de la Nación de México [AGN/M], Civil, 682, exp. 2, ff. 117–20. On the Indian defenders of Tabasco, see Cunill Citation2012d.

46. ‘Carta del virrey Velasco al rey Felipe II,’ Mexico, 14 July 1589. AGI, México, 22, N. 115, 8 ff. ‘Carta del virrey Velasco al rey,’ Mexico, 5 June 1589. AGI, México, 22, N. 16, 41 ff. ‘Carta del virrey Velasco al rey,’ Mexico, 1591. AGI, México, 22, N. 58, 10 ff.

47. ‘Cédula que manda al virrey del Perú que provea los oficios de protectores de indios que solía haber en personas de edad, aprobación y cristiandad para que defiendan sus causas,’ Madrid, 10 January 1589, in Encinas Citation1946, 4:334–35.

48. ‘Real cédula al gobernador para que se vuelva a poner protector que defienda a los indios, procurador y letrado que los ayude en sus pleitos,’ Madrid, 9 April 1591, cited by Borah Citation1996, 105–6.

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