Does Russia Matter?

Abstract

Through an analysis of parliamentary debates concerning naturalization procedures for stateless children in Estonia and Latvia from independence through 2015, this article explores how Russia has influenced policymaking toward Russian-speakers. By shifting the focus from policy outcomes to the policymaking process, operationalizing policymakers as their own field of contestation within the “quadratic nexus” framework, and treating external pressures as strategic opportunities for domestic policymakers, I find that Russia has been utilized as both a motor and a brake on reform in these cases. Nationalizers in both states have used Russia’s activism to discredit European recommendations and to deflect responsibility for Russian-speakers, explaining the delays, controversies and suboptimal outcomes surrounding the passage of simplified procedures in1998, despite the use of EU conditionality. While Russia’s kin-state activism has been used primarily to justify exclusionary preferences in post-accession Latvia, it has been harnessed as a motor for reform in Estonia, contributing to the passage of an amendment granting citizenship to stateless children at birth in 2015.

FUNDING

Research for this article was made possible by generous support provided by an Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies Emerging Scholars Grant and the Severino A. Russo Endowed Faculty Development Award, Duquesne University.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to thank the participants at the Association for the Study of Nationalities Annual Conference in New York, April 23–25, 2015, as well as Philippe Roseberry, Zsuzsa Csergo, Ada Regelmann, the editors at Problems of Post-Communism, and anonymous reviewers for their valuable feedback, and Annette MacKay for her research assistance on this project.

Notes

^1. Smith 2002.

^2. In the 1930s, 88.1 percent of the population was Estonian. By 1989, ethnic Estonians comprised only 61.5 percent of the population, with ethnic Russians comprising 30.3 percent. In Latvia, the ethnic Latvian population declined from 75.5 percent in 1935 to 52 percent in 1989, with Russians comprising approximately 34 percent of the population (Aasland and Flotten 2001, 1028).

^3. Galbreath 2005; Kelley 2004; Vachudova 2005.

^4. For a discussion on asymmetric interdependence between the EU and CEE accession states and its effects on conditionality, see Vachudova 2005, 109–10.

^5. 4-5.

^6. Budryte 2005; Galbreath 2005; Kelley 2004; Muižnieks 2011; Pelnēns 2009; Vachudova 2005.

^7. Thank you to an anonymous reviewer for this comment.

^8. Smith 2002, 5.

^9. Brubaker 1996, 68.

^10. Gross 2008, 170.

^11. For literature on strategic framing within the social movement literature, see Johnston 1995; McAdam 1996.

^12. Garrison 2001, 177–78; See also Gamson 1992.

^13. Druckman 2004, 672; see also Druckman 2001.

^14. Abolafia 2004, 354.

^15. For discussion of how perceptions and representations of an external field may be linked to stances within a field, see Brubaker 1996, 68.

^16. The Estonian translations presented in this article were provided by the Estonian Research Center under the direction of Jon Ender. The Latvian translations were provided by the Baltic Institute of Social Sciences under the direction of Brigita Zepa. Links to the original texts in Estonian and Latvian are also provided in notes throughout the analysis.

^17. Bob 2005, 27.

^18. In relation to social movement frames, Snow and Benford (1988) highlight three aspects of credibility: (1) empirical credibility, which relates to the existence of real world events that can substantiate the frame; (2) experiential commensurability, which relates to whether the frame resonates with the personal experiences of targets; (3) narrative fidelity, which refers to whether the frame resonates with cultural narrations (208–11).

^19. McCarthy, Smith, and Zald 1996, 292, 298.

^20. Mylonas 2013, 29–30.

^21. Agarin and Regelmann 2012, 447–49; Radaelli 2004; Sasse 2008, 855.

^22. Cheskin 2015, 81.

^23. For a description of the nationalizing state, see Brubaker 1996, 63–66.

^24. Park 1994, 73–74.

^25. Barrington 1995, 739.

^26. International pressure and low naturalization rates contributed to the removal of the window system in 1998.

^27. See UN Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, Article 1, paragraph 1, at www.unhcr.org/3bbb25729.html, accessed June 27, 2015.

^28. Citizenship Law, at www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/nationality/National%20legislation/Latvia-Law%20on%20citizenship.pdf, accessed June 27, 2015.

^29. Population Register, Ministry of the Interior, at http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html, accessed April 10, 2015.

^30. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Citizenship Policy in Latvia,” at www.mfa.gov.lv/en/policy/society-integration/citizenship-in-latvia/citizenship-policy-in-latvia/basic-facts-about-citizenship-and-language-policy-of-latvia-and-some-sensitive-history-related-issues, accessed June 27, 2015.

^31. Muižnieks 2011, 31. Note: 4.7 percent of Russians in Latvia have citizenship of another country, primarily Russia.

^32. Parties must have a minimum of 200 Latvian citizens to operate in Latvia. In parties of at least 400 members, not less than half must be Latvian citizens. See Law on Political Parties, at www.partylaw.leidenuniv.nl, accessed January 3, 2015.

^33. Agarin 2010; Auers 2013; Ministry of Culture 2011; Regelmann 2014; Ruutsoo et al. 2012; Schulze 2014.

^34. Agarin 2010; Nakai 2014.

^35. In 1995, the coalition “Our Home Estonia” consisting of the National People’s Party, the Latvian Socialist Party, the United People’s Party, and the Equal Rights Movement captured 5.87 percent of the vote and six seats in parliament. In 1999, the parties ran separately with the United People’s Party winning 8.37 percent of the vote and capturing six seats.

^36. For a discussion of political parties see Agarin 2010; Auers 2013; Lagerspetz and Vogt 2013; Nakai 2014.

^37. The National Harmony Party, the Latvian Socialist Party, and the Equal Rights Movement were included in the coalition. In 1998, PCTVL won 14.8 percent of the vote and sixteen seats in parliament. In the 2002 elections, PCTVL won 19 percent of the vote and twenty-five seats; however it captured only 6 percent of the vote in 2006.

^38. For a discussion of parties and electoral trends, see Agarin 2010; Auers 2013; Lagerspetz and Vogt 2013; Nakai 2014.

^39. Hogan-Brun et al. 2007, 530.

^40. Brubaker 1996, 5.

^41. For literature on kin-state activism in CEE see Brubaker 1996; Csergo 2007; Csergo and Goldgeier 2013; Galbreath and McEvoy 2010; Mylonas 2013; Waterbury 2010.

^42. Brubaker 1996; Cheskin 2010; Ciziunas 2008; Simonsen 2001; Šleivyté 2010.

^43. Persson 2014, 22.

^44. Šleivyté 2010.

^45. See Bugajski 2004; Cheskin 2010; Ciziunas 2008; Kelly 2004; Kudors 2014; Muižnieks 2006; 2011; Persson 2014; Šleivyté 2010; Winnerstig 2014.

^46. Nye 2004.

^47. “Statement Protests Slander Campaign by Russians,” FBIS Daily Report: Central Eurasia, April 10, 1994; “OSCE” The Jamestown Foundation, March 16, 1998, at https://jamestown.org/program/osce-5/, accessed October 17, 2016.

^48. Muižnieks 2006, 121; Pelnēns 2009.

^49. Kudors 2012, 94; Persson 2014, 20–24.

^50. Kudors 2010, 4; Ministry of Culture 2011, 33. Inga Springe, Sallija Benfelde, Miks Salu, “The Unknown Oligarch,” Re:Baltica The Baltic Center for Investigative Journalism, April 11, 2012, at www.rebaltica.lv/en/investigations/money_from_russia/a/686/the_unknown_oligarch.html, accessed January 3, 2013.

^51. One example includes the initiative of the Legal Information Center for Human Rights to combat increased Estonian language instruction in Russian schools. See “Moscow’s Spin Machine in Estonia,” The Baltic Times, March 21, 2012, at http://www.baltictimes.com/news/articles/30854/, accessed April 10, 2015.

^52. Kudors 2014, 89. Mikk Salu and Inga Springe, “Who Is the Puppet and Who Is the Master?— PBK, Edgar Savisaar, the Centre Party, and Russian Influence in Estonian Politics,” The Baltic Times, April 25, 2012, at http://www.baltictimes.com/news/articles/31077/, accessed April 10, 2015.

^53. “Latvia Will Never Speak in Stalin’s Language—Education Minister,” Baltic News Service, September 13, 2003, at http://news.bns.ee/en/, accessed January 3, 2013; “Estonia Moves Soviet War Monument, Sparking Russian Fury,” Agence France Presse, April 27, 2007; “Claims of Russia’s Part in Clashes in Estonia Unfounded—MP,” RIA Novosti, April 29, 2007.

^54. “Russia Accused of Unleashing Cyberwar to Disable Estonia,” The Guardian, May 16, 2007, at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/17/topstories3.russia, accessed September 23, 2015; “Denial of Service: The Estonian Cyberwar and Its Implications for US National Security,” The Elliot School of International Affairs, The George Washington University, at http://www.iar-gwu.org/node/65, accessed September 23, 2015.

^55. Brüggeman and Kesakamp 2009; Kelley 2004; Kudors 2014; Lerhis, Indans and Kudors 2008; Ministry of Culture 2011; Muižnieks 2006; 2008; Pelnēns 2009; Zepa et al. 2005.

^56. Šleivyté 2010, 19.

^57. Brubaker (1996) suggests that Estonian and Latvian elites might have favored more inclusive policies in reaction to Russia.

^58. Karklins (1994), Kelley (2004), Muižnieks (2006), and Smith (2002) suggest that Russia’s activism reinforces nationalizing tendencies.

^59. Smith 2001, 35; Brosig 2006, 27. Note: European conventions include: the “Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National, Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities” (UN, 1992), the “European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages” (CE, 1992), the “Helsinki Decisions” (OSCE, 1992), the “Copenhagen Criteria for EU Accession” (EU, 1993), the “Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities” (CE, 1994), the “Hague Recommendations regarding the Education Rights of National Minorities” (OSCE, 1996); the “Oslo Recommendations Regarding the Linguistic Rights of National Minorities” (OSCE, 1998); the “Lund Recommendations on the Effective participation of National Minorities in Public Life” (OSCE, 1999); the “Warsaw Guidelines to Assist National Minority Participation in the Electoral Process” (OSCE, 2001); the “Guidelines on the Use of Minority Languages in the Broadcast Media” (OSCE, 2003); and the “Recommendation on Policing in Multi-ethnic Societies” (OSCE, 2006).

^60. Kelley 2004; Galbreath 2005; Shimmelfennig, et al. 2006; Vachudova 2005. In Estonia, reforms included: allowing retired Soviet military to acquire residency and to naturalize through marriage to an Estonian citizen by birth; removing language requirements for candidates running for national and local election; simplifying naturalization for children born of stateless parents; making language exams easier in order to reduce the large number of stateless persons; investing the Legal Chancellor with the powers of an Ombudsman; and establishing a national integration program. In Latvia, reforms included: forcing Latvia to pass a Citizenship Law in 1994; abolishing both the quota and window systems of naturalization; removing language requirements for political candidates; simplifying naturalization procedures for children born of stateless parents; making language and civics exams more accessible in order to reduce the large number of stateless persons; and creating institutions to deal specifically with minority rights and minority integration.

^61. CSCE, April 6, 1993, Letter from the HCNM to Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs, No. 206/93/L/Rev; OSCE, May 21, 1997, Letter of the HCNM to the Estonian Foreign Minister, No. 359/97/L; CSCE, April 6, 1993, Letter from the HCNM to Latvian Minister of Foreign Affairs, No. 238/93/L/Rev; CSCE, December 10,1993, Letter from the HCNM to Latvian Minister of Foreign Affairs, No. 1463/93/L.

^62. OSCE, May 23, 1997, Letter from the HCNM to Latvian Minister of Foreign Affairs, No. 376/97/L.

^63. OSCE, May 21, 1997, Letter to the Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Reference No. 359/97/L, OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities, The Hague.

^64. OSCE, June 4, 1997, Letter from the Estonian Foreign Minister to the HCNM. Austria, Germany, the Nordic countries, the Netherlands, Malta, and Switzerland did not conform to OSCE recommendations.

^65. OSCE, September 11, 1997, Letter from the Latvian Foreign Minister to the HCNM, OSCE, High Commissioner for National Minorities, The Hague.

^66. Commission of the European Communities. Regular Report from the Commission on Latvia’s Progress Toward Accession. 1998, 51. The report noted the passage of the June 22, 1998, amendment and encouraged Latvia to continue to facilitate naturalization for stateless children; Commission of the European Communities. Regular Report from the Commission on Estonia’s Progress Toward Accession. 1998, 10.

^67. For critical appraisals of EU pressure in these cases see Agarin 2010; Agarin and Regelmann 2012; Kymlicka 2008; Muižnieks 2010; Galbreath and Muižnieks and 2009; Pettai and Kallas 2009; Sasse 2008; Schulze 2010; Schulze 2014; Steen 2010.

^68. Agarin and Regelmann 2012; Hughes 2005; Johns 2003; Sasse 2008.

^69. Schimmelfennig et al. 2006.

^70. “Top European Officials Promise to Lift Pressure on Latvia,” Monitor (Jamestown Foundation) 4, no. 139 (July 21, 1998).

^71. European Commission on Racism and Intolerance, Report on Estonia, Fourth Monitoring Cycle. Adopted December 15, 2009. CRI(2012)3. Paragraph 107; Office of the Commissioner for Human Rights, “Report by Mr. Alvaro Gil-Robles Commissioner for Human Rights on His Visit to Estonia, October 27–30, 2003.” Strasbourg, February 12, 2004. CommDH (2004)5. Paragraph 61; Commissioner for Human Rights, “Memorandum to the Estonian Government.” Strasbourg, July 11, 2007. CommDH(2007)12. Paragraph 86; Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Third Report on Estonia. Strasbourg, November 7, 2011. ACFC/OP/III(2011)004. Paragraph 15; Office of the Commissioner for Human Rights, “Report by Mr. Nils Muižnieks,Commissioner for Human Rights on of the Council of Europe following his Visit to Estonia, March 25–27, 2013.” Strasbourg, June 20, 2013. CommDH (2013)12, Paragraphs 105 and 106; European Commission on Racism and Intolerance, Report on Latvia, Fourth Monitoring Cycle. Adopted December 9, 2011. CRI(2012)3. Paragraphs 121, 122; Office of the Commissioner for Human Rights, “Report by Mr. Alvaro Gil-Robles Commissioner for Human Rights on His Visit to Latvia, October 5–8, 2003.” Strasbourg, February 12, 2004. CommDH (2004)3, pp. 12–14; Commissioner for Human Rights, “Memorandum to the Latvian Government.” Strasbourg, May 16, 2007. CommDH(2007)9. Paragraph 35–38.

^72. Agarin and Regelmann 2012; Sasse 2008; Schulze 2010; Steen 2010.

^73. See Rules of Procedure of the Saeima at, http://www.saeima.lv/en/legislation/rules-of-procedure, accessed May 27, 2016.

^74. See Riigikogu Rules of Procedure and Internal Rules Act at https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/Riigikogu/act/512032015002/consolide/current, accessed May 27, 2016.

^75. Schimmelfennig et al. 2006, 49; Mylonas 2013, 184.

^76. The first attempt to amend legislation for stateless children in March 1998, failed at the first reading. This was due in part to a strong resistance to granting citizenship at birth, as well as the inclusion of exam exemptions for the disabled and elderly and a simplified procedure for spouses of Estonian citizens. See “Kodakondsuse seaduse muutmise ja täiendamise seaduse eelnõu (749 SE) esimene lugemine” [Citizenship Act Amendment (749 SE) first reading], March 10, 1998, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/199803101000#PKP-1900004865, accessed May 27, 2016.

^77. “Kodakondsuse seaduse §-de 13, 15, 18, 19 ja 21 muutmise ning §-ga 14” [Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, and 21 and the modification of Article 14], March 18, 1998, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/199803181400#PKP-1900004906, accessed May 18, 2016.

^78. Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, and 21 and the modification of Article 14, March 18, 1998. Mart Nutt (Constitutional Committee); “Kodakondsuse seaduse ja riigilõivuseaduse täiendamise seaduse eelnõu (747 SE) teine lugemine” [Citizenship Act and State Fees Act Amendment (747) second reading], June 17, 1998, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/199806171400#PKP-1900005179, accessed May 18, 2016. Mart Nutt (Constitutional Committee); Lauri Vahtre (IL); “Kodakondsuse seaduse §­de 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 28, 29 ja 32 muutmise ning §­ga 14” [Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 29, and 32 and the modification of Article 14] continuation of the second reading, November 18, 1998, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/199811181400#PKP-1900005434, accessed May 18, 1998. Lauri Vahtre (IL) and Jüri Adams (IL); Enn Tarto (Unattached); Toomas. Alatalu (KE).

^79. Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, and 21 and the modification of Article 14, March 18, 1998. Toomas Alatalu (KE); Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 29, and 32 and the modification of Article 14 continuation of the second reading, November 18, 1998. Enn Tarto (Unattached); Mart Nutt (Constitutional Committee); Toomas Alatalu (KE); “Kodakondsuse seaduse §-de 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 28, 29 ja 32 muutmise ning §-ga 14” [Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 28, 29, and 32 and the modification of Article 14] third reading, December 8, 1998, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/199812081000#PKP-1900005517, accessed May 27, 2016. Enn Tarto (Unattached).

^80. Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 29, and 32 and the modification of Article 14 continuation of the second reading, November 18, 1998.

^81. Ibid, Jüri Adams (IL).

^82. Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, and 21 and the modification of Article 14, March 18, 1998. Mart Laar (IL); Citizenship Act and State Fees Act Amendment (747) second reading, June 17, 1998. Lauri Vahtre (IL); Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 29, and 32 and the modification of Article 14 continuation of the second reading, November 18, 1998. Jüri Adams (IL); Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 28, 29, and 32 and the modification of Article 14 third reading, December 8,1998. Toomas Alatalu (KE); Lauri Vahtre (IL).

^83. Citizenship Act and State Fees Act Amendment (747) second reading, June 17, 1998. Toomas Ilves (Minister of Foreign Affairs); Sergei Ivanov (ÜV). Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 29, and 32 and the modification of Article 14 continuation of the second reading, November 18, 1998. Olav Anton (Kesk).

^84. Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, and 21 and the modification of Article 14, March 18, 1998. Andra Veidemann (Minister of European Affairs); Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 28, 29, and 32 and the modification of Article 14 third reading, December 8,1998. Raul Mälk (Minister of Foreign Affairs).

^85. Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, and 21 and the modification of Article 14, March 18, 1998. Andra Veidemann (Minister of European Affairs); Citizenship Act Amendment (747 SE). Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 29, and 32 and the modification of Article 14 continuation of the second reading, November 18, 1998. Edgar Savisaar (Kesk); Sergei Ivanov (ÜV).

^86. Citizenship Act Amendment Articles 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 28, 29, and 32 and the modification of Article 14 third reading, December 8,1998. Andres Tarand (Mõõdukate (M)) urged MPs to accept the need to pass the amendment, despite distaste for European pressure and to refrain from further politics of confrontation which could destabilize Estonian society. Final vote: 55 in favor, 20 against, 0 abstentions.

^87. “Nr: 731 Grozījums Pilsonības likumā plenārsēde” [Nr: 731Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], April 24, 1997. This bill included a simplified procedure for children graduating from Latvian higher education institutions; “Nr: 908 Grozījums Pilsonības likumā plenārsēde” [Nr: 908 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], October 16, 1997. This bill included provisions to end the window system and to ease naturalization for those of retirement age.

^88. “Nr: 648 Grozījums Pilsonības likumā plenārsēde” [Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], February 27, 1997, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/st_97/st2702.html, accessed My 27, 2016. Aleksandrs Bartaševičs (Sociālistiskā partija-Līdztiesība (SPL)); “Nr: 685 Grozījums Pilsonības likumā plenārsēde” [Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], March 20, 1997, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/st_97/st2003.html, accessed May 27 2016. Aleksandrs Golubovs (SPL); Nr: 908 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, October 16, 1997, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/st_97/st1610.html, accessed May 27, 2016. Jānis Jurkāns (TSP); “Nr: 1035 Grozījums Pilsonības likumā plenārsēde” [Nr: 1035 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], February 12, 1998, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/st_98/st1202.html, accessed May 27, 2016. Jānis Jurkāns (TSP).

^89. Nr: 648 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, February 27, 1997. Aleksandrs Bartaševičs (SPL); Nr: 685 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, March 20, 1997. Aleksandrs Golubovs (SPL); “Nr: 1010 Grozījums Pilsonības likumā plenārsēde” [Nr: 1010 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], January 22, 1998, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/st_98/st2201.html, accessed May 27, 2016. Andis Rubins (Unattached).

^90. Nr: 908 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, October 16, 1997. Juris Dobelis (LNNK and LZP); Nr: 648 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, February 27, 1997. Juris Dobelis (LNNK and LZP); Nr: 685 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, March 20, 1997. Juris Dobelis (LNNK and LZP); Nr: 731 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, April 24, 1997. Juris Dobelis (LNNK and LZP); Andris Rubins (unattached); Nr: 739 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, May 8, 1997. Pēteris Tabūns (LNNK and LZP); Nr: 1010 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, January 22, 1998. Juris Dobelis (TB/LNNK).

^91. Citizenship Law. Section 3.1.

^92. Agarin and Regelmann 2012.

^93. “Nr: 1142 Grozījums Pilsonības likumā 1.lasījums” [Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law first reading], May 20, 1998, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/st_98/st2005.html, accessed May 27, 2016. Modris Lujāns (TSP); Kārlis Leiškalns (Latvian Way (LC)); “Nr: 1142 Grozījums Pilsonības likumā 2.lasījums” [Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law second reading], June 4, 1998, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/st_98/st0406.html, accessed May 27, 2016. Indulis Bērziņš (LC); Andrejs Panteļējevs (LC); “Nr: 1142 Grozījums Pilsonības likumā 3.lasījums” [Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law third reading], June 22, 1998, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/st_98/st2206.html, accessed may 27, 2016. President Ulmanis.

^94. “Nr: 1142 Grozījums Pilsonības likumā plenārsēde” [Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], April 23, 1998, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/st_98/st2304.html, accessed May 27, 2016.

^95. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law third reading, June 22, 1998. Andrejs Panteļējevs (LC).

^96. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law second reading, June 4, 1998.

^97. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law first reading. May 20, 1998. Juris Galerijs Vidiņš (TB/LNNK); Anna Seile(TB/LNNK); Juris Dobelis (TB/LNNK).

^98. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law third reading, June 22, 1998. Kārlis Čerāns (L).

^99. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law first reading, May 20, 1998. Jānis Mauliņš (L); Antons Seiksts (LC); Kārlis Čerāns (L); Pēteris Tabūns (TB/LNNK); Gundars Valdmanis (Unattached). Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law second reading, June 4, 1998. Kārlis Čerāns (L); Roberts Jurdžs (TB/LNNK); Gundars Valdmanis (Unattached); Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law third reading, June 22, 1998. Ilga Kreituse (Unattached); Kārlis Čerāns (L); Pēteris Tabūns (TB/LNNK); Māris Grīnblats (TB/LNNK).

^100. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law third reading, June 22, 1998. Uldis Veldre (Unattached); Juris Dobelis (TB/LNNK); Ģirts Valdis Kristovskis (TB/LNNK); Māris Grīnblats (TB/LNNK); Jānis Kazāks (For Latvia); Ilga Kreituse (Unattached); Andris Rubins (Unattached); Imants Liepa (Latviajai); Aigars Jirgens (TB/LNNK)

^101. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law second reading, June 4, 1998, Juris Galerijs Vidiņš (TB/LNNK); Aivars Guntis Kreituss (Unattached); Uldis Veldre (Unattached); Anna Seile (TB/LNNK); Aida Prēdele (TB/LNNK); Oskars Grīgs (TB/LNNK); Juris Dobelis (TB/LNNK); Guntars Valdmanis (Unattached); Jānis Mauliņš (L).

^102. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law second reading, June 4, 1998. Juris Sinka (TB/LNNK); Juris Dobelis (TB/LNNK).

^103. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law second reading, June 4, 1998.

^104. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law second reading, June 4, 1998. Indulis Bērziņš (LC); Juris Celmiņš (DPS); Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law third reading, June 22, 1998. Antons Seiksts (LC); Modris Lujāns (TSP).

^105. Nr: 1142 Amendments to the Citizenship Law second reading, June 4, 1998. Aleksandrs Kiršteins (NRP/LZP); Jānis Ābele (LC); Modris Lujāns (TSP).

^106. The following propose granting citizenship at birth: “Kodakondsuse seaduse § 5 muutmise seaduse eelnõu (126 SE) esimene lugemine” [Citizenship Act Amendment Article 5 (126 SE) first reading], November 22, 2007, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/200711221000#PKP-1160, accessed May 28, 2016; “Kodakondsuse seaduse § 5 muutmise seaduse eelnõu (306 SE) esimene lugemine” [Citizenship Act Amendment Article 5 (306 SE) first reading], November 4, 2008, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/200811041000#PKP-2919, accessed May 28, 2016; “Kodakondsuse seaduse § 5 muutmise seaduse eelnõu (796 SE) esimene lugemine” [Citizenship Act Amendment Article 5 (796 SE) first reading], November 16, 2010, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/201011161000#PKP-7384, accessed May 28, 2016; The following propose extending the simplified procedure to children with one stateless parent. “Kodakondsuse seaduse muutmise seaduse eelnõu (165 SE) esimene lugemine” [Citizenship Act Amendment (165 SE) first reading], April 3, 2012, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/201204031000#PKP-10075, accessed May 28, 2016; “Kodakondsuse seaduse muutmise seaduse eelnõu (356 SE) esimene lugemine” [Citizenship Act Amendment (356 SE) first reading, March 12, 2013, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/201303121000#PKP-12363, accessed May 28, 2016; “Kodakondsuse seaduse muutmise seaduse eelnõu (645 SE) esimene lugemine” [Citizenship Act Amendment (645 SE) first reading], June 18, 2014, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/201406181400#PKP-15308, accessed May 28, 2016.

^107. “Kodakondsuse seaduse muutmise seaduse eelnõu (68 SE) esimene lugemine” [Citizenship Act Amendment (68 SE) first reading], October 25, 2011, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/201110251000#PKP-9081, accessed May 28, 2016.

^108. “Kodakondsuse seaduse ja riigilõivuseaduse muutmise seaduse eelnõu (737 SE) kolmas lugemine” [Citizenship Act and State Fees Act Amendment (737 SE) third reading], January 21, 2015, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/201501211400#PKP-16338, accessed May 28, 2016. Final vote: 60 in favor, 12 against, 0 abstentions. The amendment also eliminated the written language examination for persons over 65, and allowed dual citizenship for minors under 18.

^109. Citizenship Act Amendment (126 SE) first reading, November 22, 2007. Evelyn Sepp (Kesk); Citizenship Act Amendment (306 SE) first reading, November 4, 2008. Evelyn Sepp (K); Citizenship Act Amendment (68 SE) first reading, October 25, 2011. Jevgeni Ossinovski (SDE); Heimar Lenk (Kesk); Citizenship Act Amendment (165 SE) first reading, April 3, 2012. Yana Toom (Kesk);

Citizenship Act Amendment (356 SE) first reading, March 12, 2013. Eldar Efendijev (Kesk).

^110. Citizenship Act Amendment (126 SE) first reading, November 22, 2007. Väino Linde (Constitutional Committee); Paul-Eerik Rummo (Eesti Reformierakonna (R)); Mark Strandberg (Erakonna Eestimaa Rohelised (EER); Citizenship Act Amendment (68 SE) first reading, October 25, 2011. Imre Sooäär (R); Tõnis Lukas (Isamaa ja Res Publica Liidu (IRL));Andres Herkel (Constitutional Committee).

^111. Citizenship Act Amendment (747 SE) first reading, March 18, 1998. See position of Constitutional Committee presented by Mart Nutt and subsequent questions. Citizenship Act Amendment (747 SE) continuation of second reading, November 18, 1998. Enn Tarto (Unattached).

^112. Citizenship Act Amendment (68 SE) first reading, October 25, 2011. Jevgeni Ossinovski (SDE); Jaak Allik (SDE). Citizenship Act Amendment (796 SE) first reading, November 16, 2010. Evelyn Sepp (Kesk); Citizenship Act Amendment (306 SE). First Reading. Evelyn Sepp (Kesk).

^113. Citizenship Act Amendment (796 SE) first reading, November 16, 2010. Evelyn Sepp (Kesk).

^114. Citizenship Act Amendment (68 SE) first reading, October 25, 2011. Heimar Lenk (Kesk).

^115. Citizenship Act Amendment (306 SE) first reading, November 4, 2008.

^116. Citizenship Act Amendment (356 SE) first reading, March 12, 2013. Yana Toom (Kesk); Citizenship Act Amendment (165 SE) first reading, April 3, 2012. Yana Toom (Kesk); Citizenship Act Amendment (645 SE) first reading, June 18, 2014. Eldar Efendijev (Kesk).

^117. Citizenship Act Amendment 356 SE first reading, March 12, 2013. Jevgeni Ossinovski (SDE); Citizenship Act Amendment (165 SE) first reading, April 3, 2012. Jevgeni Ossinovski (SDE).

^118. Citizenship Act Amendment (68 SE) first reading, October 25, 2011.

^119. Citizenship Act Amendment (306 SE) first reading, November 4, 2008. Väino Linde (Constitutional Committee).

^120. Ibid, Andres Herkel (Unattached).

^121. Citizenship Act and State Fees Act Amendment (737 SE) first reading, November 12, 2014. Jaak Allik (SDE); Citizenship Act and State Fees Act Amendment (737 SE) second reading, December 17, 2014. Indrek Saar (Constitutional Commission/Social Democratic Party); Eldar Efendijev (Kesk); Citizenship and State Fees Act Amendment (737 SE) third reading, January 21, 2015. Indrek Saar (SDE).

^122. Citizenship Act and State fees Act Amendment (737 SE) second reading. Indrek Saar (SDE).

^123. See Parliamentary Discussion “Olulise tähtsusega riikliku küsimuse “Muutunud julgeolekuolukord Euroopas” arutelu” [Debate on the matter of significant national importance, “On the Changed Security Environment in Europe,”] October 16, 2014, at http://stenogrammid.riigikogu.ee/et/201410161000#PKP-15667, accessed May 27, 2016.

^124. Citizenship Act and State fees Act Amendment (737 SE) first reading, November 12, 2014. Jaak Aaviksoo (IRL); Citizenship Act and State Fees Act Amendment (737 SE) second reading, December 17, 2014. Andres Herkel (Unattached); Ken-Marti Vaher (IRL); Jaak Aviksoo (IRL).

^125. Citizenship Act and State fees Act Amendment (737 SE) first reading, November 12, 2014. Jaak Aaviksoo (IRL); Citizenship Act and State Fees Act Amendment (737 SE) second reading, December 17, 2014. Jaak Aaviksoo (IRL);Third Reading. Rait Maruste (R) argued that the occupation frame is no longer relevant.

^126. See Draft Law “Nr: 1456 Grozījumi Pilsonības likumā” [Nr: 1456 Amendments to the Law on Citizenship] November 30, 2005, at http://helios-web.saeima.lv/saeima8/reg.likprj, accessed May 28, 2005.

^127. “Nr: 1456 Grozījumi Pilsonības likumā nodošana komisijām ” [Nr: 1456 Amendments to the Law on Citizenship plenary session], December 8, 2005, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/2002_8/st_051208/st0812.htm, accessed May 28, 2016. Māris Grīnblats (TB/LNNK).

^128. “Nr:1752 Pilsonības likums nodošana komisijām” [Nr:1752 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], June 8, 2006, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/2002_8/st_060608/st0806.htm, accessed May 28, 2016. Māris Grīnblats (TB/LNNK); “Nr: 1882 Pilsonības likums nodošana komisijām” [Nr. 1882 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], September 28, 2006 at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/2002_8/st_060928/st2809.htm, accessed May 28, 2016. Māris Grīnblats (TB/LNNK).

^129. See Draft Law “Nr: 1715 “Repatriācijas un izceļošanas likums” [Nr: 1715 Law on Repatriation and Exit], May 18, 2006. Draft Law “Nr: 1883 Repatriācijas un izceļošanas likums” [Nr: 1883 Law on Repatriation and Exit], September 20, 2006, at http://helios-web.saeima.lv/saeima8/reg.likprj, accessed May 28, 2016.

^130. Nr: 1882 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, September 28, 2008.

^131. “Nr: 252 Grozījumi Pilsonības likumā nodošana komisijām” [Nr: 252 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], May 15, 2003, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/2002_8/st_030515/st1505.htm, accessed May 18, 2016. Juris Sokolovskis (PCTVL); “Nr: 961 Grozījumi Pilsonības likumā nodošana komisijām” [Nr: 961Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session], October 21, 2004, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/2002_8/st_030515/st1505.htm, accessed May 18, 2004. Juris Sokolovskis (PCTVL); “Nr: 1744 Grozījumi Pilsonības likumā nodošana komisijām” [Nr: 1744 Amendment to the Citizenship Law plenary session], June 1, 2006, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/2002_8/st_060531a/st3105.htm, accessed May 18, 2016. Jakovs Pliners (PCTVL); “Nr: 1619 Grozījumi Pilsonības likumā nodošana komisijām” [Nr: 1619 Amendments to the Law on Citizenship (1619). Plenary Session. December 10, 2009, at http://www.saeima.lv/steno/Saeima9/091210/st091210.htm, accessed May 28, 2016. Jakovs Pliners (PCTVL).

^132. Nr: 961 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, October 21, 2004. Juris Dobelis (TB/LNNK).

^133. Nr: 1619 Amendments to the Citizenship Law plenary session, December 10, 2009. Pēteris Tabūns (TB/LNNK). This bill also included granting citizenship to persons over 60.

^134. “Nr: 52 Grozījumi Pilsonības likumā 3.lasījums” [Nr: 52 Amendments to the Citizenship Law third reading], May 9, 2013, at http://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/179, accessed May 28, 2016. Valērijs Agešins (SC); Boriss Cilevičs (SC).

^135. Ibid. Valdis Liepiņš (Reformu Partijas); Ingmārs Čaklais (Vienotība (V)); Ilma Čepāne (V).

^136. “Nr: 52 Grozījumi Pilsonības likumā 2.lasījums” [Nr: 52Amendments to the Law on Citizenship second reading], September 6, 2012, at http://www.saeima.lv/lv/transcripts/view/132, accessed May 28, 2016. Ilma Čepāne (V).

^137. Nakai 2014.

Additional information

Funding

Research for this article was made possible by generous support provided by an Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies Emerging Scholars Grant and the Severino A. Russo Endowed Faculty Development Award, Duquesne University.