Pharmacological Properties and Traditional Therapeutic Uses of Important Indian Spices: A Review

Abstract

Indian spices that provide flavor, color, and aroma to food also possess many therapeutic properties. Ancient Indian texts of Ayurveda, an Indian system of medicine, detailed the medicinal properties of these plants and their therapeutic usage. Recent scientific research has established the presence of many active compounds in these spices that are known to possess specific pharmacological properties. The therapeutic efficacy of these individual spices for specific pharmacological actions has also been established by experimental and clinical studies. The medicinal effects traditionally ascribed to Indian spices are validated by modern pharmacological and experimental techniques, thus providing a scientific rationale to their traditional therapeutic usage.

Keywords:

• Medicinal plants
• Active principle
• Therapeutic uses
• Pharmacological activity

INTRODUCTION

The term “spice” has been originally derived from the word “species,” which was applied to groups of exotic foodstuffs in the middle ages. Aromatically scented herbal products have been used since ancient times to flavor foods and for preparing incenses and perfumes. Rare spices were utilized in cooking as a sign of wealth in Rome, and later in Medieval and Renaissance times, and the privileged developed an exaggerated taste for spicy foods. The need to supply spices to the European markets spurred explorations, culminating in the extraordinary voyages that resulted in the discovery of the New World.

A spice can be broadly defined as a tropical herbal plant or a specific part of it that is valued for providing color and aromatic flavoring along with stimulating odor for use in cooking and in condiments, as well as in candies, cosmetics, fragrances, and medications. Spices add taste, flavor, aroma and colour to our food. Spices are also used as preservatives, appetizers, digestives, and aphrodisiacs by many societies. These spices are derived from specific parts of a plant such as flowers, fruits, leaves, seeds, rhizomes, roots, buds, secretory products, and even the bark of a tree-sp India produces a large proportion of all the spices produced in the world, largely owing to its varying climate and diverse soil conditions. According to the Indian Spice board, India produces 3.2 million tons of spices valued at approximately 4 billion US dollars every year. India has about half the share of the world trade in spices because of its excellent reputation.

There are many plants having medicinal properties, which are commonly used as spices. The taste of Indian food largely depends on the spices used that impart the food various flavors such as sweet, chilly, sour, and bitter. Besides giving the various flavors to food, all spices also possess some medicinal properties, which keep the human body in a healthy condition and cure the diseases according to the Indian system of medicine called Ayurveda. Most of these spices are administered orally in the form of powder or as decoctions. The medicinal value of any particular spice depends upon the potency of the plant parts that act on specific systems such as digestive system, respiratory system, etc. Therefore, usage of specific plant parts has been recommended in Ayurveda in case of particular ailments. However, several factors such as soil, rainfall, altitude, method of cultivation, collection, storage, transport, etc., play an important role in determining the actual potency and medicinal value of herbal drugs.

The aim and object of the current work was to explore the traditional therapeutic usage of common Indian spices and to correlate their observed pharmacological actions with the presence of specific chemical compounds in them. Some of the common medicinal plants that are used as spices in India are Jeerak, Haldi, Lanka, Dhania, Palandu, Rason, Methi, Adrakh, Elaichi, Tejapatra, Daruchini, Jaiphal, Kababchini, Marich, Lavang, Sarson, Ajwoin, Saunf, and Heeng. The specific plant parts contain active compounds present provide traditional therapeutic uses and pharmacological properties of the important Indian spices have been reviewed.

CORIANDRUM SATIVUM LINN. (CORIANDER)

Coriandrum sativum Linn, commonly known in India as the spice Dhania, belongs to the Umbelliferae family. It is an annual, small, glabrous herb having decompound, ovate, or lanceolate leaves. Its flowers are compound umbel while fruits are subglobose having small round seeds. Its fruits as well as the entire plant has been traditionally used in pyrexia, burning sensation, anorexia, flatulence, indigestion, thirst, headache, colic pain, and oral diseases.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include the volatile oils, Coriandrol, Calcium, Phosphorus, Quercetin 3-glucoronide Linalool, Camphor, Geranyl acetate, Geraniol, and Coumarins.[2] Due to the presence of these active principles, coriander has been found to possess antifertility, antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, antioxidant, antiproliferative, and hypotensive pharmacological properties.[2–5]

The biochemical effect of coriander seeds on lipid parameters in 1, 2-dimethyl hydrazine (DMH) induced colon cancer in rats was studied. The study showed that the concentrations of cholesterol and cholesterol to phospholipid ratio decreased while the level of phospholipid increased significantly in the DMH control group compared to the spice administered group. Fecal dry weight, fecal neutral sterols and bile acids showed a sharp increase in the coriander-fed group compared with the DMH administered group.[6]

The effect of coriander pretreatment on gastric mucosal injuries caused by NaCl, NaOH, ethanol, indomethacin, and pylorus ligation accumulated gastric acid secretions was investigated in rats. Pretreatment at oral doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg, body weight was found to provide a dose-dependent protection against the (i) ulcerogenic effects of different necrotizing agents; (ii) ethanol-induced histopathological lesions; and (iii) pylorus ligated accumulation of gastric acid secretions and ethanol related decrease of Nonprotein Sulfhydryl groups (NP-SH). Results obtained on the study of gastric mucus and indomethacin-induced ulcers demonstrated that the gastro protective activity of coriander might not be mediated by gastric mucus and/or endogenous stimulation of prostaglandins. The protective effect against ethanol-induced damage of the gastric tissue might be related to the free-radical scavenging property of different antioxidant constituents (linanool, flavonoids, coumarins, catechins, terpenes, and polyphenolic compounds) present in coriander. The inhibition of ulcers might be due to the formation of a protective layer of either one or more than one of these compounds by hydrophobic interactions.[7]

The effect of the administration of coriander seeds (Coriandrum sativum) on the metabolism of lipids was studied in rats fed a high fat diet with added cholesterol. The spice had a significant hypolipidemic action. The levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides decreased significantly in the tissues of the animals of the experimental group, which received coriander seeds. Significant increases in β - hydroxy, β - methyl glutaryl CoA reductase, and plasma lecithin cholesterol acyl-transferase activity were noted in the experimental group. The level of LDL + VLDL cholesterol decreased while that of HDL cholesterol increased in the experimental group compared to the control group. The increased activity of plasma LCAT, enhanced hepatic bile acid synthesis and the increased degradation of cholesterol to fecal bile acids and neutral sterols appeared to account for its hypocholesterolemic effect.[8]

The antioxidant potencies of polyphenolic compounds from Coriandrum sativum against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative damage in human lymphocytes were evaluated. Treatment with polyphenolic fractions (50 μg/ml) increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes and glutathione content and reduced the levels of thiobarbituric acid-reacting substances (TBARS) significantly. Observed reduction in the level of lipid peroxides showed a decreased tendency of peroxidative damage.[9]

The essential oils composition of coriander fruits obtained by hydrodistillation was studied at three stages of maturity by GC–FID and GC–MS. Essential oil yields showed marked increase during maturation process and forty-one compounds were identified. Geranyl acetate (46.27%), linalool (10.96%), nerol (1.53%), and neral (1.42%) were the main compounds at the first stage of maturity (immature fruits). At the middle stage, linalool (76.33%), cis-dihydrocarvone (3.21%), and geranyl acetate (2.85%) were reported as the main constituents. Essential oils at the final stage of maturity (mature fruits) consist mainly on linalool (87.54%) and cis-dihydrocarvone (2.36%).[10]

The anticonvulsant effects of the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Coriandrum sativum seeds were studied in mice in order to evaluate the folkloric use of this plant. In the pentylenetetrazole test, the aqueous and ethanolic extracts prolonged the onset of clonic convulsions and the anticonvulsant activities of high dose extracts (5 mg/kg) were similar to that of phenobarbital at a dose of 20 mg/kg in the PTZ test. Both extracts in high doses decreased the duration of tonic seizures and showed a statistically significant anticonvulsant activity in the maximal electroshock test.[11]

CUMINUM CYMINUM LINN. (CUMIN)

Cuminum cyminum Linn. belongs to the Umbelliferae family and is commonly known in India as the spice Jeerak. It is a slender, annual, glabrous herb whose leaves are compound and linear. The fruits are cylindrical, with apex and base narrowed and dorsally compressed seeds. It is mostly cultivated in Punjab and south India. Its seeds have been traditionally used in colic pain, abdominal discomfort, flatulence, deficient lactation, piles, and worm infestation.[1] Cumaldehyde, vitamin A, vitamin C, Cuminal, Cuminic alcohol, γ-Terpinene, Safranal, p-Cymene, volatile oils and β-Pinene are some of the main active chemical constituents present in this plant.[12] Essential oils extracted by hydrodistillation from Cuminum cyminum were characterized by means of GC and GC–MS nd found to contain α-pinene (29.1%), 1,8-cineole (17.9%), and linalool (10.4%) as the major compounds. C. cyminum oil also exhibited strong antimicrobial activity against E. coli, S. aureus and L. monocytogenes.[13] Cumin has been found to possess antioxidant, anticancer, stimulant and carminative pharmacological properties.[2] The anti-diabetic effect of cumin seeds has been found to be remarkably beneficial, as indicated by reduction in hyperglycaemia and glucosuria in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats who were put on an eight-week dietary regimen containing cumin powder (1.25%). Dietary cumin also countered other metabolic alterations as revealed by lowered blood urea level and reduced excretions of urea and creatinine by diabetic animals.[14] The cancer chemopreventive potentials of different doses (2.5, 5.0, and 7.5%) of a cumin seed-mixed diet were evaluated against benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P]-induced forestomach tumorigenesis and 3-methylcholanthrene (MCA)-induced uterine cervix tumorigenesis and the results showed a significant inhibition of stomach tumor burden (tumors per mouse) by cumin.[15]

CURCUMA LONGA LINN. (TURMERIC)

Curcuma longa Linn. is commonly known as the spice Haldi in India and belongs to the Zingiberaceae family. It is a perennial herb with a short stem and erect leaves. The rhizomes are cylindrical, ovoid and branched in shape and yellow-orange in coloured while its leaves are simple, petiolate, and oblong-lanceolate. Its flowers are pale yellow in spikes. It is cultivated throughout India. The rhizomes of turmeric have been traditionally used in skin diseases, blood impurities, worm manifestation, cough, asthma, deficient lactation, obesity, and diabetes.[1] The active chemical constituents found in this plant include Curcumin, volatile oils, vitamin A, and proteins.[2] Important pharmacological properties of turmeric include antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, hypocholesteremic, antihistaminic, antihepatotoxic, antifungal, and antiarthritic actions.[2,12]

The essential oils of leaves, flowers, rhizomes and roots of turmeric (Curcuma longa L., Zingiberaceae) were analysed by GC-MS. The major constituent of flower oil was p-cymene-8-ol (26.0%) while leaf oil was dominated by phellandrene (32.6%). The rhizomes and roots contained ar-turmerone (31.0% and 46.8%, respectively) as major constituents.[16] Curcumin has been shown to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer activities and thus has a potential against various malignant diseases, diabetes, allergies, arthritis, Alzheimer's disease, and other chronic illnesses. These effects are mediated through the regulation of various transcription factors, growth factors, inflammatory cytokines, protein kinases, and other enzymes. Curcumin exhibits activities similar to recently discovered tumor necrosis factor blockers (e.g., Humira, Remicade, and Enbrel), a vascular endothelial cell growth factor blocker (e.g., Avastin), human epidermal growth factor receptor blockers (e.g., Erbitux, Erlotinib, and Geftinib), and a HER2 blocker (e.g., Herceptin).[17]

The anti-inflammatory effect of curcumin is most likely mediated through its ability to inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), lipoxygenase (LOX), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). COX-2, LOX, and iNOS are important enzymes that mediate inflammatory processes. Improper upregulation of COX-2 and/or iNOS has been associated with the pathophysiology of certain types of human cancer as well as inflammatory disorders. Because inflammation is closely linked to tumor promotion, curcumin with its potent anti-inflammatory property is anticipated to exert chemopreventive effects on carcinogenesis.[18]

Curcumin has been shown in the last two decades to be a potent immunomodulatory agent that can modulate the activation of T cells, B cells, macrophages, neutrophils, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells. Curcumin can also downregulate the expression of various proinflammatory cytokines including TNF, IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, and chemokines, most likely through inactivation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB. Interestingly, however, curcumin at low doses can also enhance antibody responses. This suggests that curcumin's reported beneficial effects in arthritis, allergy, asthma, atherosclerosis, heart disease, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, and cancer might be due in part to its ability to modulate the immune.[19]

ZINGIBER OFFICINALE ROSC (GINGER)

Zingiber officinale Rosc belongs to the Zingiberaceae family and is well known in India as the spice Adarak. It is a slender, perennial rhizomatous herb having linear, sessile and glabrous leaves. Its flowers are yellowish-green in colour having cylindrical spikes. The rhizomes are yellowish-brown in colour, annulated, latterly flattened and covered with scaly leaves. It is cultivated throughout India, especially along the Western Ghats. Its rhizomes have been traditionally used in anorexia, colic pain, cough, asthma, piles, pyrexia and rheumatic disease.[1] Ginger's active chemical constituents include Zingiberene, Zingiberol, Gingerole, Paradol, volatile oils, and vitamins A, B, and C.[12,20] It has been found to possess anti-inflammatory, antinociiceptive, aromatic, spasmolytic, carminative, antipyretic, analgesic, antitussive, hypotensive, and absorbent pharmacological properties.[2,20–22] The essential oil and oleoresins (ethanol, methanol, CCl₄, and isooctane) of Zingiber officinale have been extracted by hydrodistillation and Soxhlet methods and subjected to GC-MS analysis. Geranial (25.9%) was the major component in essential oil; eugenol (49.8%) in ethanol oleoresin, while in the other three oleoresins, zingerone was the major component (33.6, 33.3, and 30.5% for, methanol, CCl₄, and isooctane oleoresins, respectively). The antioxidant activity of essential oil and oleoresins were evaluated against mustard oil by peroxide, anisidine, thiobarbituric acid (TBA), ferric thiocyanate (FTC), and 2,2′-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging methods. They were found to be better antioxidants than butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA). The antimicrobial properties were also studied using various food-borne pathogenic fungal and bacterial species. The essential oil and CCl₄ oleoresin showed 100% zone inhibition against Fusarium moniliforme. For other tested fungi and bacteriae, the essential oil and all oleoresins showed good to moderate inhibitory effects. However, both essential oil and oleoresins were found to be effective, essential oil was found to be better than the oleoresins.[23] The ability of a crude ginger extract to inhibit joint swelling in an animal model of rheumatoid arthritis, streptococcal cell wall-induced arthritis, was compared to that of a fraction containing only gingerols and their derivatives. Both extracts were efficacious in preventing joint inflammation. However, the crude dichloromethane extract, which also contained essential oils and more polar compounds, was more efficacious (when normalized to gingerol content) in preventing both joint inflammation and destruction.[24] The lipid lowering and antioxidant potential of ethanolic extract of ginger was evaluated in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes in rats. Ethanolic extract of Zingiber officinale (200 mg/kg) fed orally for 20 days produced significant antihyperglycaemic effect (P < 0.01) in diabetic rats. Further, the extract treatment also lowered serum total cholesterol, triglycerides and increased the HDL-cholesterol levels when compared with pathogenic diabetic rats (P < 0.01). STZ-treatment also induced a statistically significant increase in liver and pancreas lipid peroxide levels (P < 0.01) as compared to normal healthy control rats. Zingiber officinale extract treatment lowered the liver and pancreas thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values (P < 0.01) as compared to pathogenic diabetic rats.[25]

CAPSICUM ANNUM LINN. (CHILI)

Capsicum annum Linn. is commonly known in India as the spice Lanka and belongs to the Solanaceae family. It is an erect small herb having ovate leaves and 2–3 flowers in auxiliary fascicles. The fruits are red and green pungent berries in variable forms and shape, which are orange in colour when ripe. The seeds are discoid in shape and smooth in texture. Its fruits are generally used in flatulence, skin disease, anorexia, and obesity.[1] Capsaicin, capsaicinoids, volatile oils, and vitamins C and E are some of the active chemical constituents present in chili.[2] Due to the presence of these active principles, chili has been found to possess digestive, stimulant, anticough, and analgesic pharmacological properties.[2,26]

The ability of aqueous extracts of ripe (red) and unripe (green) hot peppers to prevent 25 μM Fe²⁺-induced lipid peroxidation in Rat's brain (in vitro) were assessed using TBARS (Thiobarbituric acid reactive species). The pepper extracts (unripe and ripe) caused a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the MDA production in both the basal and the Fe²⁺-induced lipid peroxidation in the Rat's brain. The unripe CAT had a significantly (p < 0.05) higher total phenol, Fe²⁺ chelating ability and inhibitory effect on the basal and Fe²⁺-induced lipid peroxidation in the brain tissues than the ripe pepper.[27]

The chemical composition and radical-scavenging & antioxidant activities of hot pepper fruits at three maturity stages (small green, green, and red) were studied using GC–MS analysis of n-hexane and chloroform fractions. The first stage of maturation (small green) showed the highest radical-scavenging activity (IC₅₀ of 129 μg/ml). Using the bovine brain peroxidation assay, the methanolic extract of green pepper showed significant antioxidant activity (IC₅₀ of 522 μg/ml). Addition of methanolic extract of red and green pepper inhibited oxidation of linoleic acid. Methanolic extract of red pepper showed greater antioxidative potency than the others (IC₅₀ of 3 μg/ml).[28]

ALLIUM SATIVUM LINN. (GARLIC)

Allium sativum Linn. belongs to the Liliaceae family and is known throughout India as the spice Rason. t is a scapigerous foetid perennial herb with underground compound bulbs covered by outer white thin scales and having a simple, smooth, round stem. The leaves are simple, long, flat and linear, while the flowers are small, linear and white in colour having rounded umbels. This plant is cultivated throughout India. Its bulbs are traditionally used in rheumatic disease, colic pain, worm infestation, anorexia, obesity, liver disorders, and flatulence.[1,29] Garlic contains a wealth of sulfur compounds; most important for the taste is allicin (diallyl disulphide oxide), which is produced enzymatically from alliin (S-2-propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide) if cells are damaged; its biological function is to repel herbivorous animals. Allicin is deactivated to diallyl disulphide; therefore, minced garlic changes its aroma if not used immediately. In the essential oil from steam distillation, diallyl disulphide (60%) is found besides diallyl trisulphide (20%), diallyl sulfide, ajoene, and minor amounts of other di- and polysulfides.[2] In therapeutic terms, garlic possesses anthelmentic, antiasthmatic, anticholesterolemic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, stimulant, stomachic, tonic, and vasodilator pharmacological properties.[2,30]

The antioxidant activities of polar fractions of mature garlic bulbs and immature plants were evaluated as free radical-scavenging capacity (RSC), together with the effect on lipid peroxidation (LP). RSC was assessed by measuring the scavenging activity of garlic extracts on 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydrogen peroxide. Effects on LP were evaluated by following the activities of examined garlic extracts in Fe²⁺/ascorbate and Fe²⁺/H₂O₂ systems of induction. Investigated extracts reduced the DPPH radical formation (IC₅₀ ranging from 1.03 to 6.01 mg/ml) and neutralised H₂O₂ (IC₅₀ ranging from 0.55 to 2.01 mg/ml) in a dose-dependent manner. Strong inhibition of LP in both systems of induction was observed for all tested garlic extracts.[31]

Garlic supplementation at doses of at least 10 mg alliin or a total allicin potential of ∼4000 mcg lowers total serum cholesterol between 10–12%. Specifically, Garlic both increases HDL and lowers LDL cholesterol, thus its effect on the LDL/HDL ratio is more significant than its effect on total cholesterol. It also has a moderate effect on elevated triglycerides.[32]

ALLIUM CEPA LINN. (ONION)

Allium cepa Linn. is a biennial herb with aromatic fleshy underground bulb. It belongs to the Liliaceae family and is known in India as the spice Palandu. The leaves are linear, hollow, cylindrical and fleshy while the many flowers are white in globular umbels. Its tubers have been traditionally used in obesity, pain, anorexia, urinary disorders, obesity and inflammation.[1] Allyl propyl disulphide, thiopropanal S-oxide and Phosphoric acid are the main chemical constituents, which have been found in this plant.[12] On account of these active principles, onion has been found to possess diuretic, antimicrobial, expectorant, lachrymatory and stimulant pharmacological properties.[2] The antibacterial activity of raw and aqueous extracts of Allium cepa against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, (from high vaginal swab) that are common cause of nosocomial (hospital-acquired) and urinary tract infections was investigated using the cup-plate diffusion method. The result showed that ethanolic extract of ginger gave the widest zone of inhibition against the two test organisms at the concentration of 0.8 gml⁻¹. However, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was more sensitive to the extract of onion bulbs compared to Staphylococcus aureus.[33] One gram of onion added to the food of rats inhibits significantly (p < 0.05) bone resorption as assessed by the urinary excretion of tritium released from bone of 9-week-old rats prelabeled with titrated tetracycline from weeks 1 to 6. To isolate and identify the bone resorption inhibiting compound from onion, onion powder was extracted and the extract fractionated by column chromatography and medium-pressure liquid chromatography. A single active peak was finally obtained by semi preparative high-performance liquid chromatography, which was identified as γ-l-glutamyl-trans-S-1-propenyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide (GPCS). It has a molecular mass of 306 Da and inhibits dose-dependently the resorption activity of osteoclasts, the minimal effective dose being ∼2 mM.[34]

TRIGONELLA FOENUM-GRAECUM (FENUGREEK)

Trigonella foenum-graecum is an aromatic, erect annual herb belonging to the Leguminosae family. This spice is commonly known in India as Methi and is mostly cultivated in Punjab, Kashmir, and upper Gangetic plains. Its leaves are trifoliate round in shape, flowers are axillary white or yellowish, and fruit pods are having many rectangular yellow colour seeds. Its seeds have been traditionally used in diabetes, body ache, deficient lactation, abdominal pain, and anorexia.[1] The main active chemical constituents present in this plant include volatile oils, calcium, phosphorus, iron, trigonalin, vitexin, β-sitosterol, and tigogenine.[2,12] Fenugreek has been found to possess hypoglycaemic, antipyretic, analgesic, hypolipidimic, anti-inflammatory, and antitumour pharmacological properties.[12]

The protein content of fenugreek was found to be 28.4%. The crude fibre content was 9.3% and crude fat was 7.1%. The minimum protein solubility was observed at pH 4.5, which was 18.5%, while maximum protein solubility was observed at pH 11, which was 91.3%. Measurement of emulsion and foaming properties of fenugreek protein concentrate showed that they were greatly affected by pH levels and salt (NaCl) concentration. The minimum values of both emulsion and foam properties were attained at pH 4.5, which was the isoelectric point of the protein; maximum values were obtained at pH 2 and pH 12. Results showed that fenugreek protein concentrate had high oil absorption capacity (1.56 ml oil/g protein), water absorption capacity (1.68 ml H₂O/g protein) and bulk density (0.66 g/ml).35]

The diuretic activity of the successive extract of fenugreek seeds was investigated in Wistar rat, according to Lipschitz method. The diuretic response and electrolyte excretion potency from petroleum ether, and benzene extract were remarkable in comparison with the control animals. The extract at 150 and 350 mg/kg body weight showed a dose dependent increase in volume of urine, the naliuretic activity seen by increase in Na +/K+ ions ratio with respect to control.[36]

When healthy adult female albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) were fed orally with steroidal extract of Trigonella foenum-graecum (100 mg/day/rat for 15 days), it was found that T. foenum-graecum seeds extract exerts antiestrogenic and antifertility activity in female rats.[37]

The hypocholesterolaemic properties of an ethanol extract from defatted fenugreek seeds were investigated. Purification of the crude extract by dialysis produced an isolated component with haemolytic properties. The dialysate was also found to contain saponins demonstrated by thin-layer chromatography. Experiments in vivo employing the everted-sac technique showed that the ethanol extract had the ability to inhibit taurocholate and deoxycholate absorption in a dose-dependent manner. In two separate feeding experiments, hypercholesterolaemic rats were fed on 30 or 50 g ethanol extract/kg for a -week period. Reductions in plasma cholesterol levels ranged from 18 to 26% and a tendency for lower concentrations of liver cholesterol was observed.[38]

ELETTARIA CARDAMOMUM MATON (LESSER CARDAMOMUM)

Elettaria cardamomum Maton, known in India as the spice Elaichi, belongs to the Zingiberaceae family and is found distributed through India particularly South India. It is a tall perennial herbaceous plant having subsessile, lanceolate leaves with sheathing base. Its flowers are panicles, white & violet streaked, while the fruits are in the shape of trilocular, subglobose capsules, marked with many vertical ribs. There are 15–20 seeds per pod, which are brownish- black colored with thin mucilaginous membrane. Its seeds have been traditionally used in cases of bad breath, vomiting, excessive thirst, weakness, pyrexia, and burning sensation.[1] Cineol, terpenene, terpeneol, and volatile oil are the primary active chemical constituents present in this plant, which have resulted in its anti inflammatory, antipyretic, carminative, aromatic, and digestive pharmacological properties.[2]

A crude methanolic extract (TM), essential oil (EO), petroleum ether soluble (PS) and insoluble (PI) fractions of methanolic extract, were studied in rats at doses of 100–500, 12.5–50, 12.5–150, and 450 mg/kg, respectively for their ability to inhibit the gastric lesions induced by asprin, ethanol, and pylorous ligature. All fractions (TM, EO, PS, PI) significantly inhibited gastric lesions induced by ethanol and aspirin but not those induced by pylorus ligation. TM proved to be active reducing lesions by about 70% in the EtOH-induced ulcer model at 500 mg/kg. The PS fraction reduced the lesions by 50% at 50 and 100 mg/kg (no dose response was observed) with similar effect than the PI fraction at 450 mg/kg. In the aspirin-induced gastric ulcer, the best gastroprotective effect was found in the PS fraction, which inhibited lesions by nearly 100% at 12.5 mg/kg (39).

AMOMUM SUBULATUM ROXB. (GREATER CARDAMOMUM)

It is a small herb up to 100-cm in height having oblong, lanceolate, bright green, glabrous leaves. Belonging to the Zingiberaceae family, Amomum subulatum Roxb is locally called Big Elaichi in India. It is primarily found in the southern and western parts of the Himalayas. The flowers are white in peduncle spikes while the fruits are reddish, brown, globose capsules whose many seeds are held together by a viscid sugary pulp. These seeds have been traditionally used in treatment of cough, asthma, headache, bad breath, anorexia and liver diseases.[1] The primary active chemicals in this plant are cardamonin, falvanone, cineol, terpinene, and volatile oil.[2] Greater cardamomum has been reported to possess hypoglycaemic, anticough, digestive and stimulant pharmacological properties.[12]

A crude methanolic extract of A. subulatum and its different fractions, viz. essential oil, petroleum ether (60–80°), ethyl acetate and methanolic fractions, were studied in rats for their ability to inhibit the gastric lesions induced by aspirin, ethanol and pylorus ligature. In addition, their effects on wall mucus, output of gastric acid, and pepsin concentration were recorded. The crude methanolic extract and its fractions, viz. essential oil, petroleum ether and ethyl acetate, inhibited gastric lesions induced by ethanol significantly, but not those, which were induced by pylorus ligation and aspirin. However, ethyl acetate fraction increased the wall mucus in pylorus-ligated rats. The results suggest a direct protective effect of ethyl acetate fraction on gastric mucosal barrier.[40]

CINNAMOMUM TAMALA NEES (TEJAPATRA)

Cinnamomum tamala Nees is a moderate sized evergreen tree belonging to the Lauraceae family, which is known in India as the Tejapatra spice. Tejapatra has been found to possess carminative, stimulant, diuretic, and diaphoretic pharmacological properties. Its stem bark is aromatic and reddish-brown in color, while the leaves are simple, glabrous, alternate, and superposed. The flowers are small and light green in color whereas the fruits are black and round in shape. This plant is also commonly found in tropical and subtropical Himalayan region. Its leaves have been traditionally used in urinary disorders, pyrexia, rheumatic disease, and anorexia.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, volatile oils, eugenol, and phellandrene.[12]

The antidiarrhoeal potential of 50% ethanolic extract of Cinnamomum tamala on experimentally induced castor oil diarrhoea, gastric emptying of phenol red meal, gastrointestinal transit of charcoal meal and in vitro mast cell degranulation activity was investigated. C. tamala extract (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg, orally) produced a dose-dependent reduction in the total amount of faecal matter in castor oil-induced diarrhoea. The mean distance travelled by charcoal meal at 50 and 100 mg/kg of extract showed a significant reduction in the secretion of gastrointestinal fluid accumulation by 32.5–65.0%. The Na⁺ and K⁺ concentrations on castor oil-induced fluid accumulation showed a greater inhibitory effect on Na⁺ levels than on K⁺ concentrations. C. tamala significantly reduced the lipid peroxidation (P < 0.001) and increased the catalase (P < 0.01) activity in comparison to the castor oil-induced groups. C. tamala leaf extract did not show any significant effect at a higher dose (15 mg/ml) on mast cell degranulation. However, the extract in the dose of 5 and 10 mg/ml conferred significant mast cell protective action (P < 0.001). The percentage of eugenol in extract is 3.8% w/w, and total tannin is 247.5 mg/g.[41]

Methanol extract of the powder of dried leaves of Cinnamomum tamala Nees and Eberm. was applied to silica gel 60 F₂₅₄ TLC plates and these were developed with toluene-ethyl acetate-formic acid, 90 + 10 + 01 (v/v), as mobile phase. Detection and quantitation was performed by densitometry at λ = 280 nm. The accuracy of the method was checked by conducting recovery studies for two different levels of eugenol; the average recovery was found to be 98.39%. The average eugenol content, as estimated by use of the proposed method, was 5.405 mg/g.[42 ^]

CINNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM BREYN (CINNAMON)

It is a small evergreen tree, about 8 meters in height, which belongs to the Lauraceae family. Known in India as the spice Daruchini, cinnamon has been found to possess aromatic, digestive, stimulant, antibacterial, astringent, antioxidant, and antinociceptive pharmacological properties.[2] Its stem bark is thin, aromatic, and brown in color. The leaves are coriaceous, lanceolate- ovate, and glaucus green while the flowers are small with a foetid disagreeable smell. Its fruits are ellipsoidal berry, which have purple colored seeds. Cinnamon is mostly found in the southern regions of India. Its stem bark has been traditionally used in obesity, pain, dental and oral problems, asthma, tuberculosis, and bad breath.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include cinamaldehyde, eugenol, cinnamic acid, and cinnazeylanin.[4]

Acute (24 h) and chronic (90 days) oral toxicity studies on the ethanolic extracts of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees bark were carried out in mice. Acute dosages were 0.5, 1.0, and 3 g/kg, while the chronic dosage was 100 mg/kg/day. During chronic treatment, there was no significant change in the pre- and post treatment body weight of the test animals while the weight gain in the control group was significant. C. zeylanicum treatment caused reduction in liver weight of the treated animals compared to the control. Hematological studies revealed a significant fall in hemoglobin level of C. zeylanicum treated animals. The extracts induced a significant increase in reproductive organ weights, sperm motility, sperm count and failed to illicit any spermatotoxic effect.[43]

The volatile oil of the bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum was extracted by means of supercritical CO₂ fluid extraction in different conditions of pressure and temperature. Its chemical composition was characterized by GC-MS analysis. Nineteen compounds, which in the supercritical extract represented >95% of the oil, were identified. (E)-Cinnamaldehyde (77.1%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (6.0%), α-terpineol (4.4%), and eugenol (3.0%) were found to be the major constituents. The SFE oil of cinnamon was screened for its biological activity about the formation of melanin in vitro. The extract showed antityrosinase activity and was able to reduce the formation of insoluble flakes of melanin from tyrosine. The oil also delayed the browning effect in apple homogenate. (E)-cinnamaldehyde and eugenol were found to be mainly responsible of this inhibition effect.[44]

MYRISTICA FRAGRANS HOUT (NUTMEG)

Myristica fragrans Hout is a dioecious aromatic tree, which belongs to the Myristicaceae family. It is found mostly in Kerala, Karnataka and southern parts of India under the local name of Jaiphal. Its leaves are coriaceous and elliptic-lanceolate while the fragrant flowers are umbellate cymes and creamy yellow in colour. The fruits are globose like a pear, aril- fleshy, laciniate, and red-coloured. Nutmeg has been found to possess antiulcerogenic, antidiarrhoeal, sedative, hypolipidimic, analgesic, antipyretic and antioxidant pharmacological properties.[2] Its fruits and seeds have been traditionally used for the treatment of dysentery, sexual disorders, weakness, and darkness of complexion.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include myristicin, myristic acid, eugenol, fatty acids, and volatile oils.[2]

The anticonvulsant activity of the volatile oil of nutmeg was investigated using well-established animal seizure models to evaluate its potential for acute toxicity and acute neurotoxicity. The volatile oil of nutmeg was tested for its effects in maximal electroshock, subcutaneous pentylenetetrazole, strychnine, and bicuculline seizure tests. Nutmeg oil showed a rapid onset of action and short duration of anticonvulsant effect. It was found to possess significant anticonvulsant activity against electroshock-induced hind limb tonic extension. It exhibited dose dependent anticonvulsant activity against pentylenetetrazole-induced tonic seizures. It delayed the onset of hind limb tonic extensor jerks induced by strychnine. It was anticonvulsant at lower doses, whereas weak proconvulsant at a higher dose against pentylenetetrazole and bicuculline induced clonic seizures. Nutmeg oil was found to possess wide therapeutic margin, as it did not induce motor impairment when tested up to 600 microL/kg in the inverted screen acute neurotoxicity test. Furthermore, the LD(50) (2150 microL/kg) value was much higher than its anticonvulsant doses (50–300 microL/kg). The results indicate that nutmeg oil may be effective against grand mal and partial seizures, as it prevents seizure spread in a set of established animal models.[45]

The effect of Nutmeg seeds on learning and memory in mice was studied. The n-hexane extract of nutmeg was administered orally in three doses (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg p.o.) for three successive days to different groups of young and aged mice. The learning and memory parameters were assessed using elevated plus-maze and passive-avoidance apparatus. The effect of this extract on scopolamine (0.4 mg/kg i.p.) and diazepam (1 mg/kg i.p.)-induced impairment in learning and memory was also studied. The extract at the lowest dose of 5 mg/kg p.o. administered for three successive days significantly improved learning and memory of young and aged mice. This extract also reversed scopolamine- and diazepam-induced impairment in learning and memory of young mice and enhanced learning and retention capacities of both young and aged mice.[46]

SYZYGIUM AROMATICUM LINN. (CLOVE)

Syzygium aromaticum Linn., commonly known as the spice Lavang, belongs to the Myrtaceae family. It is a pyramidal evergreen tree mostly cultivated in the southern parts of India. Its leaves are simple, lanceolate, gland dotted and fragrant while the flowers buds are greenish to pink, clustered at the end of the branches and highly aromatic. The fruits are fleshy, dark pink drupes with oblong seeds, which are grooved on the one side. Its flower buds have been traditionally used in dental and oral diseases, throat infections, cough, asthma, hiccoughs and colic pain.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include caryophyllene, clove oil, eugenol, salicyclic acid, tannin, and vitamin B. Due to the presence of these active principles, clove has been found to possess local anesthetic, carminative, stimulant, aromatic, analgesic, antimicrobial, anticonvulsion, and anticarcinogenic pharmacological properties.[2,12]

Phenylpropanoids that possess antimutagenic activity were isolated from the buds of clove (Syzygium aromaticum). The isolated compounds suppressed the expression of the umu gene following the induction of SOS response in the Salmonella typhimurium TA1535/pSK1002 that have been treated with various mutagens. The suppressive compounds were mainly localized in the ethyl acetate extract fraction of the processed clove. This ethyl acetate fraction was further fractionated by silica gel column chromatography, which resulted in the purification and subsequent identification of the suppressive compounds. Electron impact mass spectrometry, IR, and ¹H and ¹³C NMR spectroscopy were then used to delineate the structures of the compounds that confer the observed antimutagenic activity. The secondary suppressive compounds were identified as dehydrodieugenol[1] and trans-coniferyl aldehyde.[2] When using 2-(2-furyl)-3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)acrylamide (furylfuramide) as the mutagen, compound 1 suppressed 58% of the umu gene expression as compared to the controls at a concentration of 0.60 μmol/mL, with an ID₅₀ (50% inhibitory dose) value of 0.48 μmol/mL, and compound 2 suppressed 63% of the umu gene expression as compared to the controls at a concentration of 1.20 μmol/mL, with an ID₅₀ value of 0.76 μmol/mL. Additionally, compounds 1 and 2 were tested for their ability to suppress the mutagenic activity of other well-known mutagens such as 4-nitroquinolin 1-oxide (4NQO) and N-methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG), which do not require liver metabolizing enzymes, and aflatoxin B₁ (AfB₁) and 3-amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-1), which require liver metabolizing enzymes and activated Trp-P-1 and UV irradiation. Compounds 1 and 2 showed dramatic reductions in their mutagenic potential of all of the aforementioned chemicals or treatment. For the search of the structure-activity relationship, the derivatives of 1 and 2 (1a and 2a-c) were also assayed with all mutagens. Finally, the antimutagenic activities of compounds 1, 1a, 2, and 2a-c against furylfuramide, Trp-P-1, and activated Trp-P-1 were assayed by the Ames test using the S. typhimurium TA100 strain.[47]

The essential oil from clove exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against a collection of 25 different genera of test bacteria and 20 different isolates of Listeria monocytogenes. The oil was also tested against three fungal strains: a plant pathogen, a spoilage type and a mycotoxigenic strain. This resulted in high levels of growth inhibition at both concentrations of 1 and 10 l ml⁻¹ growth medium. The essential oil was fed to mice in order to assess the antioxidant capacity, with particular reference to the protection of polyunsaturated fatty acids, in the liver and retina during ageing.[48]

In order to investigate its effect on testicular function, chronic oral exposure of hexane extract of flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum in three doses (15 mg, 30 mg, and 60 mg/kg BW) were evaluated for a single spermatogenic cycle (35 days) in Parkes (P) strain mice. The treatment did not induce systemic toxicity at the doses tested. Lower dose (15 mg) of the extract increased the activities of Δ⁵ 3 β-HSD and 17 β-HSD, and serum level of testosterone. The higher doses (30 and 60 mg) of extract inhibited these parameters and induced non-uniform degenerative changes in the seminiferous tubules associated with decrease in daily sperm production and depletion of 1C (round and elongated spermatids) population.[49]

PIPER CUBEBA LINN. (LONG PEPPER)

It is a climbing plant found in the southern part of India, which belongs to the Piperaceae family. Commonly known in India as kababchini spice, long pepper has been found to possess anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antiallergic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant pharmacological properties.[12] Its leaves are ovate- cordate and glabrous whereas its small light green coloured flowers are unisexual. The sub-globose fruits are stalked and opiculate. Its fruits have been traditionally used in throat infections, urinary disorders, dental and oral diseases, cough, and anorexia.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include cubebin, cubebol, scented volatile oil, essential oils, and oleoresin.[2]

The anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of three dibenzylbutyrolactone lignans, (−)-hinokinin,[2] (−)-6,6′-dinitrohinokinin,[3] and (−)-6,6′-diaminohinokinin,[4] obtained by partial synthesis from (−)-cubebin,[1] were investigated using different animal models. It was observed that compounds 1 and 2 inhibited the edema formation in the rat paw edema assay at the same level and that all responses were dose dependent. In addition, at the dose of 30 mg/kg, compounds 1, 2, 3, and 4 inhibited the edema formation by 53, 63, 54, and 82%, respectively, at the third hour of the experiment. In the acetic acid-induced writhing test in mice, compounds 2 and 4 produced inhibition levels of 97% and 92%, respectively, while 3 displayed lower effect (75%), which was still higher than 1.[50]

The activities of the crude ethanol extract from Piper cubeba seeds, (−)-cubebin and its semi-synthetic derivatives were evaluated against oral pathogens. The crude ethanol extract was more active against Streptococcus salivarius (MIC value of 80 μg/mL). (−)-Cubebin displayed MIC values ranging from 0.20 mm for Streptococcus mitis to 0.35 mm for Enterococcus faecalis. The natural product (−)-cubebin and its semi-synthetic derivative (−)-hinokinin displayed bacteriostatic activity at all evaluated concentrations, as well as fungicidal activity against Candida albicans at 0.28 mm. The O-benzyl cubebin derivative showed fungistatic and fungicidal effects against C. albicans at 0.28 mm and 0.35 mm, respectively. Also, the other dibenzylbutyrolactone derivatives [(−)-6,6′-dinitrohinokinin and (−)-O-(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl)-cubebin] displayed bacteriostatic and fungistatic effects at the evaluated concentrations. Moreover, the semi-synthetic derivative (−)-6,6′-dinitrohinokinin was the most active compound against all the evaluated microorganisms.[51]

PIPER NIGRUM LINN. (PEPPER)

Piper nigrum Linn. is a multi-branched, perennial climbing plant with cordate, glaucous leaves that belongs to the Piperaceae family. Commonly known as the spice marich in India, Pepper has been found to possess analgesic, carminative, stimulant, febrifuge, antioxidant and antimicrobial pharmacological properties.[12] Its small flowers are green coloured with spikes and inflorescence. The fruits are globose or ovoid, bright red when ripe and black in dry condition. The seeds are globose and hard albumin. This plant is largely cultivated in the southwestern part of India. Its fruits have been traditionally used in anorexia, worm infestation, cough, asthma, pyrexia, obesity and liver disease.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include piperine, piperidine, chavicine, vitamin B, and volatile oils.[2]

The three extracts (ethyl acetate, chloroform, and methanol) from Piper longum stem displayed mild to moderate activity against most of the bacteria tested while the petroleum ether extract was found to be active against only gram-positive Streptococcus aureus and gram-negative Shigella boydii. Ethyl acetate extract displayed strong activity against gramnegatives Shigella boydii (17 mm) and Shigella flexneriae (17 mm) whereas methanol extract was strongly active against gram-positive Streptococcus âhaemolyticus (18 mm). The bacteria Shigella dysenteriae was resistant against all the crude extracts of Piper longum stem. Moreover, all of the extracts were appeared to be active against the organisms Streptococcus aureus and Shigella boydii.[52]

The fractions R1, R2, and R3 obtained from pet ether extract of Piper nigrum Linn. (PEPN) were investigated for in vitro antioxidant activity.1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radical, superoxide anion radical, nitric oxide radical, and hydroxyl radical scavenging assays were performed. The free radical scavenging activity of the different fractions PEPN increased in a concentration dependent manner. R3 and R2 fraction of PEPN in 500 Pg/ml inhibited the peroxidation of a linoleic acid emulsion by 60.48 ± 3.33% and 58.89 ± 2.51%, respectively. In DPPH free radical scavenging assay, the activity of R3 and R2 was found almost similar. R3 (100 Pg/ml) fraction of PEPN inhibited 55.68 ± 4.48% nitric oxide radicals generated from sodium nitroprusside whereas curcumin in the same amount inhibited 84.27 ± 4.12%. Moreover, PEPN scavenged the superoxide radical generated by the Xanthine/Xanthine oxidase system. The fraction R2 and R3 in the dose of 1000 Pg/ml also inhibited 61.04 ± 5.11% and 63.56 ± 4.17%, respectively, the hydroxyl radical generated by Fenton's reaction. The amounts of total phenolic compounds were also determined and 56.98 Pg pyrocatechol phenol equivalents were detected in one mg of R3.[53]

BRASSICA COMPESTRIS LINN. (MUSTARD)

Mustard has been found to possess chemo preventive, antioxidant, antineoplastic, pungent and irritating pharmacological properties.[2,54,55] Brassica compestris Linn. belongs to the Cruciferae family and is commonly known in India as the spice sarson. This plant is usually cultivated in the north-western parts of India. It is a highly branched, annual herb with large, lanceolate-oblong, lobed and petiolate leaves. The flowers are bright yellow and racemose with glabrous, sub erect pods. The seeds are small, round, smooth and pale –yellow in colour. Its seeds have been traditionally used in skin disease, dental disorders, worm infestation, obesity, dry skin and anorexia.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include fixed oils, sinalbin, lecythin, myrosin, and sinigrin.[2]

Two new fatty acid derivatives, 9Z,12Z,15Z-octadecatrienoic acid sorbitol ester (1) and (10,11,12)-trihydroxy-(7Z,14Z)-heptadecadienoic acid (2), were isolated from the pollen of Brassica campestris L. var. oleifera DC., along with the four known fatty acid derivatives, 9Z,12Z,15Z-octadecatrienamide, N-(2-hydroxyethyl) (3), hexadecanoic acid sorbitol ester (4), 15,16-dihydroxy-9Z,12Z-octadecadienoic acid (5), and 9Z,12Z,15Z-octadecatrienoic acid 2,3-dihydroxypropyl ester (6). Their structures were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis, including 1D- and 2D-NMR as well as HR-ESI-MS experiments. All compounds were tested using a noncellular aromatase assay, and the results showed that some compounds possessed strong inhibitory activity.[56]

TRACHYSPERMUM AMMI LINN. (AJWOIN)

Trachyspermum ammi Linn., usually known by the name of Ajwoin in India belongs to the Umbelliferae family. Ajwoin has been found to possess antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhoeal, stimulant, anticholerin, antibronchitis, antidyspepsia, and colic pharmacological properties.[2,57] It is a glabrescent herb having fusiform roots and pinnate, linear leaves. The flowers are white and polygamous and the fruits are ovoid and mucricate. Ajwoin is extensively cultivated in the states of Punjab and West Bengal in India. Its fruits have been traditionally used in flatulence, anorexia, inflammation, and colic pain.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include thimol, carvacrol, thymene, vitamin B, and volatile oils.[12]

The in vitro activity of a methanolic extract of fruits of Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae) against adult bovine filarial Setaria digitata worms has been investigated. A bioassay-guided fractionation was carried out by subjecting the crude extract to flash chromatography. HPLC analysis was done for the crude extract and active fraction. The crude extract and the active fraction showed significant activity against the adult S. digitata by both a worm motility and MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] reduction assays. The isolated active principle was chemically characterized by IR, (1)H-NMR and MS analysis and identified as a phenolic monoterpene. It was screened for in vivo antifilarial activity against the human filarial worm B. malayi in Mastomys coucha, showing macrofilaricidal activity and female worm sterility in vivo against B. malayi.[58]

FERULA NARTHEX BOISS (ASAFOETIDA)

Ferula narthex Boiss, well known throughout India as the spice Heeng, belongs to the Umbelliferae family. Asafoetida has been found to possess antipyretic, antispasmodic, anti-carcinogenic, expectorant, antiasthmatic, anticholerin, anthelmentic, stimulant, nervine, and uterine tonic pharmacological properties.[2,59] It is a small tree having a multi-branched stout stem and compound tomentose leaves, which is mostly found in northwestern parts of India. Its flowers are yellow-coloured with umbels and inflorescence. Its exudate has been traditionally used in abdominal discomfort, flatulence, worm infestation, chronic fever and asthma.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include asaresinotannol, gum, resin, umbellic acid, ferulic acid, umbelliferone, asaresinol ferulata, and volatile oils.[12]

Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) of several Ferula sp. was extracted and purified through (NH₄)₂SO₄ precipitation, dialysis, and gel filtration chromatography. Leaf and stem extracts were used for the determination of enzyme properties. Optimum conditions, for pH, temperature, and ionic strength were determined. The best substrates of PPO were catechol for leaf and (−) epicatechin for stem samples. Optimum pH and temperature were determined. K _M and V _max values were 2.34 × 10⁻³ M and 8541 EU/ml for catechol, and 2.89 × 10⁻³ M and 5308 EU/ml for (−) epicatechin. The most effective inhibitor was sodium diethyl dithiocarbamate for leaf samples and sodium metabisulfite for stem samples. Both inhibitors indicated competitive reactions. PPO showed irreversible denaturation after 40 min at 60°C.[60]

The antioxidant and anticarcinogenic potential of asafetida was studied in swiss albino mice. A single dose of TPA (20 nmol/0.2 ml acetone/animal), a known tumor promoter decreased the cellular antioxidant level significantly (p < 0.01) when applied topically to mice skin. It also induced the ODC activity, rate of DNA synthesis, hydrogen peroxide level, xanthine oxidase activity, and protein carbonyl content in mice skin significantly (p < 0.01). These events are early biomarkers of carcinogenesis. However, the pretreatment of animals with asafoetida (300, 400, and 500 μg/200 μl acetone/animal) caused the reversal of all events significantly (p < 0.01). The pretreament of animals with asafoetida recovered the antioxidant level and reversed the induced ODC activity and DNA synthesis significantly (p < 0.01).[61]

FOENICULUM VULGARE MILL (ANISE)

Foeniculum vulgare Mill is a glabrous, biennial tall herb, commonly known as the spice Saunf that belongs to the Umbelliferae family. Anise has been shown to possess hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, bronchodilator, antioxidant, antimicrobial, diuretic, analgesic, and antipyretic pharmacological properties.[2,62] It is mostly found in the northwestern parts of India. Its long leaves are pinnate and segmented, while the flowers are yellow and emarginated. The fruits are ellipsoid or oblong and the seeds are dorsally compressed. Its fruits have been traditionally used in emesis, excessive thirst, flatulence, weakness, and colic pain.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include anethol, d-fenchone, methylchavicol, anisaldehyde, and volatile oils.[12,63]

Two diglucoside stilbene trimers and a benzoisofuranone derivative were isolated from Foeniculum vulgare fruit together with nine known compounds. Their structures were elucidated by spectral methods including ID, 2D NMR and MS, and chemical methods.[64] The in-vitro cytoprotection activity of methanolic extract of Foeniculum vulgare and Helicteres isora was examined against normal human blood lymphocytes by micronucleus assay and antitumor activity against B16F10 melanoma cell line by Trypan blue exclusion assay for cell viability. Lymphocyte culture treated with 70% methanolic extract of Foeniculum vulgare and 50% methanolic extract of Helicteres isora showed very less percentage of micronucleus, i.e., 0.006 and 0.007%, respectively, as compared to standard drug doxorubicin, which showed 0.018% micronucleus. On the other hand, 70% methanolic extract of Foeniculum vulgare good antitumor activity at the concentration of 200 μg/ml.[65]

The antioxidant activity of water and ethanol extracts of fennel seed was evaluated by various antioxidant assay, including total antioxidant, free radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging, metal chelating activities and reducing power. Those various antioxidant activities were compared to standard antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), and α-tocopherol. Both the water and ethanol extracts of fennel seeds showed strong antioxidant activity. 100 μg of water and ethanol extracts exhibited 99.1 and 77.5% inhibition of peroxidation in linoleic acid system, respectively, and greater than the same dose of α-tocopherol (36.1%).[66]

NIGELLA SATIVA LINN. (FENNEL)

Fennel belongs to the Ranunculaceae family and is mostly cultivated in the states of Assam, Bihar, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Nigella sativa Linn., known in India as the spice Upakunchika is an erect herb having alternate, pinnate leaves. Its white-yellow flowers are terminal peduncled while the fruits are spherical capsules having triangular black seeds. Its seeds have been traditionally used in the treatment of worm infestation, colic pain, anorexia, difficult labor and deficient lactation.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include cymine, carbone, nigellin, volatile oils, and nigellone.[12] Fennel has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, hepatoprotective, analgesic, antipyretic, antimicrobial, and antineoplastic pharmacological properties.[2,67]

Effects of ethanol extract of Nigella sativa L. on the growth of Ehrlich ascites tumor (EAT), mitotic index, labeling index, and on the life span of tumor bearing mice were studied. The results from treated animals showed a decrease in viable cell count, an increase in the life span of EAT bearing mice and an increase in the glutathione peroxidation of heart tissue. Cytological studies have revealed a reduction in the mitosis and DNA synthesis. Treatment with the N. sativa extract also resulted in improvements in the morphological features of tumor cells, along with a reduction in intracytoplasmic vacuoles, the appearance of cell membrane blebbing and the staining intensity.[68]

CROCUS SATIVUS LINN. (SAFFRON)

Crocus sativus Linn., known as the spice Kumkum in India, belongs to the Iridaceae family. It is a small bulbous perennial whose leaves are radial and linear with a closely reticulate leaf sheath. Its blue scented flowers have yellow anthers, orange coloured stigma and trifid on filiform style tops. The fruits are in the shape of loculicidal capsules. This plant is cultivated in Jammu & Kashmir. Its flowers have been traditionally used for bleeding disorder, vertigo, inflammation, skin and eye diseases and headache.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include crocin, picrocrocin, and volatile oils.[12] Due to the presence of these active principles, Saffron has been found to possess anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, anticonvulsant, antitumour, and antiedematogenic pharmacological properties.[2,69]

The radical scavenging activity of an extract of Crocus sativus L. (saffron), grown in Crocos, Kozani (Greece), and some of its bioactive constituents (crocin, safranal) was studied. It was shown that a methanol extract of Crocus sativus exhibited high antioxidant activity, although it contains several active and inactive constituents. In trying to approximate a structure-activity relationship, two bioactive constituents of saffron extract were tested, namely crocin and safranal. Crocin showed high radical scavenging activity (50 and 65% for 500 and 1000 ppm solution in methanol, respectively), followed by safranal (34% for 500 ppm solution.[70]

Four new compounds, crocusatins F (1), G (2), H (3), and I (4a), together with 21 known compounds, were isolated from an aqueous extract of the stigmas of Crocus sativus (saffron). The structures of 1–4 were established by spectral methods. The tyrosinase inhibitory activities of all 25 compounds isolated were evaluated in vitro using mushroom tyrosinase. Among them, crocusatin H (3), crocin-1 (5), and crocin-3 (6) showed significant tyrosinase inhibitory activity.[71]

The saffron extract and two of its main ingredients crocin and crocetin improved memory and learning skills in ethanol-induced learning behavior impairments in mice and rats. Oral administration of saffron may be useful as treatment for neurodegenerative disorders and related memory impairment.[72] Crocin analogs isolated from saffron significantly increased the blood flow in the retina and choroid as well as facilitated retinal function recovery and it could be used to treat ischemic retinopathy and/or age-related macular degeneration.[73]

Fifty milligrams of saffron dissolved in 100 ml of milk was administered twice a day to human subjects and the significant decrease in lipoprotein oxidation susceptibility in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) indicates the potential of saffron as an antioxidant.[74] Aqueous and ethanol extracts of saffron reduced the blood pressure in a dose dependent manner. EFS of the isolated rat vas deferens also were decreased by these saffron extracts.[75]

Saffron stigma and petal extracts exhibited antinociceptive effects in chemical pain test as well as acute and/or chronic anti-inflammatory activity and these effects might be due to their content of flavonoids, tannins, anthocyanins, alkaloids, and saponins.[76] In Iranian traditional medicine, the saffron had been used as an anticonvulsant remedy. In experiments with mice using maximal electroshock seizure (MES) and pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) tests have demonstrated that the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron possess anticonvulsant activity.[77]

The topical administration of saffron extracts (100 mg/kg body weight) inhibited the initiation/promotion of 7,12-dimethylbenz [a] anthracene (DMBA)- induced skin tumors in mice. The oral administration of the same dose of saffron extracts restricted tumor incidence of 20-methylcholanthrene (MCA)-induced soft tissue sarcomas in mice.[78] In an animal model (frog embryos), crocetin, from saffron was effective in treating certain types of cancer.[79]

MURRAYA KOENIGII LINN. (CURRY LEAF)

Murraya koenigii Linn. is a small, deciduous tree having strong-pungent smell especially found in South India. It is known in India as the spice Kurrypata and belongs to the Rutaceae family. Its leaves are pinnate, glabrous, with small elliptic- lanceolate leaflets. Curry leaf has been found to possess hypoglycemic, antidiabetic and hepatoprotective pharmacological properties.[2,80] Its flowers are white in colour while the fruits are ovoid-globose and black in colour. Its leaves have been traditionally used in diabetes, dysentery, anorexia and flatulence.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include carbazole, girinimbine, and girinimbilol.[6,81]

The possible protective effects of Murraya koenigii leaves extract against β-cell damage and antioxidant defense systems of plasma and pancreas in streptozotocin induced diabetes in rats was studied. The levels of glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin in blood and insulin, Vitamin C, Vitamin E, ceruloplasmin, reduced glutathione, and TBARS were estimated in plasma of control and experimental groups of rats. To assess the changes in the cellular antioxidant defense system such as the level of reduced glutathione and activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase were assayed in pancreatic tissue homogenate. The levels of glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin, insulin, TBARS, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants were altered in diabetic rats. These alterations were reverted to near control levels after the treatment of M. koenigii leaves extract. Transmission electron microscopic studies also revealed the protective nature of M. koenigii leaves on pancreatic β-cells. These findings suggest that M. koenigii treatment exerts a therapeutic protective nature in diabetes by decreasing oxidative stress and pancreatic β-cell damage.[82]

The antioxidative properties of the leaves extracts of Murraya koenigii using different solvents were evaluated based on the oil stability index (OSI) together with their radical scavenging ability against 1-1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). The methylene chloride (CH₂Cl₂) extract and the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) soluble fraction of the 70% acetone extract significantly prolonged the OSI values comparable to those of α-tocopherol and BHT. Five carbazole alkaloids were isolated from the CH₂Cl₂ extract and their structures were identified to be euchrestine B (1), bismurrayafoline E (2), mahanine (3), mahanimbicine (4), and mahanimbine (5) based on ¹H and ¹³C NMR and mass (MS) spectral data. The OSI value of carbazoles at 110°C decreased in the order 1 and 3 > α-tocopherol > BHT > 2 > 4, 5 and control. It is assumed that compounds 1 and 3 contributed to the high OSI value of the CH₂Cl₂ extract of M. koenigii. The DPPH radical scavenging activity for these carbazoles was in the order ascorbic acid > 2 > 1, 3 and α-tocopherol > BHT > 4 and 5.[83]

TAMARINDUS INDICA LINN. (TAMARIND)

Tamarindus indica Linn. belongs to the Leguminosae family and is known in India as the spice Imlika,. It is a very large evergreen tree with dark grayish bark, paripinnate, and channeled leaves and sub sessile oblong leaflets. Tamarind has been found to possess antipyretic, hypolipidimic, antioxidant, antidiabetic and antimicrobial pharmacological properties.[2,84–87] Its flowers are yellow with red striped racemes. The brownish ash coloured fruits are sub compressed pods and the seeds are enveloped by a tough leathery membrane. Its fruits have been traditionally used in anorexia, inflammation, worm infestation, skin & hepatic disorders and constipation.[1] The active chemical constituents present in this plant include tannin, saponin, sesquiterpenes, and phlobatamins.[12]

Quantitative analysis of polyphenolic compounds in Tamarind seeds and pericarp was conducted by analytical high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), calculated against standard curves of authentic compounds. The yields of total phenolic compounds after Soxhlet extraction with methanol were 6.54 and 2.82 g/kg (dry weight) in the seeds and pericarp respectively. The profile (%) of polyphenolics in Tamarind pericarp was dominated by proanthcyanidins (73.4) in various forms (+)-catechin (2.0), procyanidin B2 (8.2), (−)-epicatechin (9.4), procyanidin trimer (11.3), procyanidin tetramer (22.2), procyanidin pentamer (11.6), procyanidin hexamer (12.8) along with taxifolin (7.4), apigenin (2.0), eriodictyol (6.9), luteolin (5.0), and naringenin (1.4) of total phenols, respectively. The content of Tamarind seeds comprised only procyanidins, represented (%) mainly by oligomeric procyanidin tetramer (30.2), procyanidin hexamer (23.8), procyanidin trimer (18.1), procyanidin pentamer (17.6) with lower amounts of procyanidin B2 (5.5) and (−)-epicatechin (4.8). Extraction of Tamarind pericarp and seeds using acetone: methanol: acetic acid gave only procyanidin oligomers, but in much higher yield and variety. The antioxidant capacities of the Soxhlet methanolic extracts were determined, and indicated that Tamarind may be an important source of cancer chemopreventive natural products in tropical regions.[88]

MENTHA SPICATA (MINT)

Mentha spicata is commonly known in India as the spice Pudina, and it belongs to the Labiateae family. Mint has been found to possess antioxidant, antifungal, and hypotensive pharmacological properties.[2,89–91] It is an erect aromatic herb with suckers having simple, opposite, petioled, ovate, and serrate leaves. The flowers are liliacin axillary distant whorls while the fruits are nutlets and smooth. Its leaves have been traditionally used in abdominal discomfort, colic pain, pyrexia, flatulence, and skin disease.[53] Terpene, ceneol, carvone, vitamin B, vitamin A, calcium, iron, and volatile oils are the main active chemical constituents present in this plant.[12,92]

Pudina extract was examined for its DNA damage protecting activity and antioxidant potential. n-Butanol soluble fraction (PE) derived from methanol extract of Mentha spicataLinn. at 10 μg/ml exhibited significant protecting activity against DNA strand scission by ^•OH on pBluescript II SK(–) DNA. IC₅₀ concentration of PE to scavenge DPPH^•, ABTS^•+ and superoxide radical was 7.47, 4.05, and 57.80 μg/ml, respectively. Inhibition of lipid peroxidation induced with 25 mM FeSO₄ on rat liver homogenate as lipid source was noted at 500 μg/ml of PE with Antioxidant Index of 63.43%. Total polyphenol content of one-milligram pudina extract was equivalent to 500 μg of gallic acid. Therefore, this potential bioactivity of pudina extract was associated with its high polyphenolic content.[93]

CONCLUSION

Spices have been traditionally used as an essential ingredient in the preparation of food in many countries, especially in India. They are directly responsible for providing the aroma, flavor, color and taste to the food articles. Therefore, they are a part and parcel of every kitchen. However, most of these Indian spices have also been ascribed with many therapeutic properties and actions in the traditional textbooks of ancient times. The Indian system of medicine called Ayurveda has laid special emphasis on the medicinal and therapeutic actions of these spices and described the same in detail in the various texts of Vedic period, which are several thousand years old. Based on such traditional knowledge base and folklore which has been passed on from generation to generation, many Indian spices have been a part of regular household usage. Many traditional Indian spices have been studied rigorously in recent times using modern scientific methods to understand their nature, chemical constituents, and specific pharmacological properties. Such detailed analysis has revealed the presence of specific chemical compounds and constituents in each of these spices. Since many of these chemical compounds are already known to possess specific pharmacological properties and actions, their presence in these spices could be possibly responsible for the observed pharmacological actions of these spices. Scientific analysis of the pharmacological and therapeutic actions of these individual spices through experimental and clinical studies has established many of the pharmacological properties of these spices as detailed above. Many of these spices possess crucial therapeutic properties such as appetizer, digestive, carminative, analgesic, blood purifier, hepatoprotective, antipyretic, antidiabetic, hypolipidimic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, etc. Spices possess antioxidant activity that can be applied for preservation of lipids and reduce lipid peroxidation in biological systems. The potential antioxidant activities of selected spices extracts (water and alcohol 1:1) were investigated on enzymatic lipid peroxidation. Water and alcoholic extract (1:1) of commonly used spices (garlic, ginger, onion, mint, cloves, cinnamon, and pepper) dose-dependently inhibited oxidation of fatty acid, linoleic acid in presence of soybean lipoxygenase. Among the spices tested, cloves exhibited highest while onion showed least antioxidant activity. The relative antioxidant activities decreased in the order of cloves, cinnamon, pepper, ginger, garlic, mint, and onion. Spice mix namely ginger, onion and garlic; onion and ginger; ginger, and garlic showed cumulative inhibition of lipid peroxidation thus exhibiting their synergistic antioxidant activity. The antioxidant activity of spice extracts were retained even after boiling for 30 min at 100°C, indicating that the spice constituents were resistant to thermal denaturation.[94] The antioxidant activity of these dietary spices suggests that in addition to imparting flavor to the food, they possess potential health benefits by inhibiting the lipid peroxidation. As several metabolic diseases and age-related degenerative disorders are closely associated with oxidative processes in the body, the use of herbs and spices as a source of antioxidants to combat oxidation warrants further attention. Immediate studies should focus on validating the antioxidant capacity of herbs and spices as well as testing their effects on markers of oxidation in parallel with clinical trials that are aiming to establish antioxidants as mediators of disease prevention.