Non-state actors and framing processes in EU foreign policy: the case of EU–Israel relations

ABSTRACT

This article investigates the role of non-state actors (NSAs) in European Union (EU) foreign policy, focusing on how they contribute to the emergence and codification of new frames that underpin EU external policies. It argues that changes in EU foreign policy are the result of interactions among a frame entrepreneur, often played by an NSA, and policy-makers in situations of cognitive uncertainty and when a policy window opens. The empirical evidence is based on the case of EU–Israel relations: a non-governmental orgaization (NGO) called MATTIN Group acted as frame entrepreneur and contributed to the emergence and codification of a new frame of understanding of EU–Israel relations, redefining them on the basis of a legal paradigm. This clarifies the territorial scope of bilateral agreements and ensures that the bilateral relations are constructed and implemented in accordance with EU legal framework and its commitments under international law.

KEY WORDS:

• EU foreign policy
• frame entrepreneur
• framing
• Israel
• lobbying
• non-state actors

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank Federica Bicchi, Roberto Roccu, Christoph Meyer and the anonymous reviewers for their comments on previous versions of this article. The usual disclaimers apply.

Notes

1 For the full text, see Official Journal of the European Union, 2013/C 205/05. 19 July 2013.

2 For a discussion on the distinction between framing and negotiation/deliberation, see Bicchi (2007).

3 This represents the constructivist understanding of framing and frames (cf. Béland and Cox 2011). For a rationalist view, which sees framing as a strategic and manipulative process or/and as a way to mobilize certain biases in the policy process and define the scope of the conflict between alternatives, see Baumgartner and Jones (1993); Riker (1986); Schattschneider (1960); Sell and Prakash (2004).

4 On the idea of a cascade effect, see also Entman (2003); Finnemore and Sikkink (1998).

5 Given that NSAs contribute to the emergence and codification of new frames, but do not sit at the table where policies are formulated and decided, the definition of ‘frame entrepreneurs’ seems more appropriate to that of policy entrepreneurs, who are able to formulate and implement policies.

6 On the basis of the Area of Jurisdiction and Powers Ordinance No. 29 of 5708-1948. The Supreme Court of Israel has never formally recognized the occupation or ruled over the application of the Fourth Geneva Convention to the OPTs, although it has referred to the law of occupation in its rulings. See Kretzmer (2012); Paasivirta (1999).

7 Interviews with EU officials, Brussels, February–March 2011.

8 Confidential documents seen by the author; email correspondence with a EU member state's customs authority.

9 Interviews with NSA representative, Brussels, November 2010–February 2011. See also Bertrand-Sanz (2010).

10 Confidential documents seen by the author by courtesy of the MATTIN Group; interview with EU official, Brussels, March 2011.

11 Interviews with EU officials, Brussels, February–March 2011.

12 Answer to Question no 106 by Saïd El Khadraoui to the Commission (H-0544/05 ), 7 July 2005

13 For example, questions by MEP Luisa Morgantini to the Council (H-0017/00) and the Commission (H-0018/00) on Products imported from Israel: possible violations of the rules of origin; oral question by several MEPs (O-0018/00) on Irregular Application of the EC-Israel Trade Agreement; written Question by Caroline Lucas to the European Commission, 6 July 2005, P-2496/05

14 Interviews conducted in Brussels, Berlin, London and Paris, February 2010–July 2012.

15 Interviews with NSA representative and EU official, Berlin and Brussels, March–July 2012.

16 The Brita case refers to the appeal of Brita GmbH to the Finanzgericht in Hamburg against the decision of German customs authorities to deny preferential treatment to some of its import of goods produced by Soda Club. See European Court of Justice, Case C-386/08, 25 February 2010.

17 Interview with EU official, Brussels, January 2014.

18 Ibid.

19 Decision of the Council and of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council on the conclusion of the Euro-Mediterranean Aviation Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and the Government of the State of Israel, of the other part /2012/0324 (NLE).

20 Interviews with EU officials, Brussels, October 2011–October 2012.

21 This part of the working paper uses the same argument presented by the MATTIN Group. The documents of the NGO, seen by courtesy of the MATTIN Group, cannot be reproduced here.

22 Interview with EU official, Brussels, January 2014.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Benedetta Voltolini

Bibliographical note

Benedetta Voltolini is Marie Skłodowska-Curie Research Fellow at the Centre d'études européennes, Sciences Po, Paris.