Enjoyment, confidence, and broader experiences of teaching mathematics to the under-fives: accounts from students of Early Childhood Studies

ABSTRACT

This article examines Early Childhood Studies students’ enjoyment, confidence, and broader experiences of teaching mathematics to the under-fives. The underpinning, two-phase study took place in a university in England using online questionnaires and interviews, with this article focusing on the findings from the interviews. Drawing upon Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory (1979), this article builds on current knowledge by highlighting that students’ own broader experiences of mathematics at school and during childhood have shaped their emotional attitude to mathematics by exploring their enjoyment and confidence of teaching mathematics in comparison to other subjects. This has implications for the support and training in the teaching of mathematics of those in the early years workforce and for the course content of Early Childhood Studies degrees.

KEYWORDS:

• early mathematics
• preschool teacher
• enjoyment
• confidence
• experience
• preservice teacher

Introduction

The quality of teaching of mathematics to the under-fives is critical as research indicates a clear relationship between children’s mathematical skills on entry to school and their later school achievement in mathematics (Duncan et al. 2007). Early mathematics consists of numbers, operations, shapes, spatial relationships, measurements, patterns, and classification, all of which are essential in the early childhood curriculum (Lee 2017). Educators must have an awareness and knowledge of mathematics and be able to embed mathematical learning and thinking into everyday practice when teaching the under-fives (Johnston and Bull 2022). Although mathematics is one of seven subject areas in the English Early Years Framework (Department for Education 2023), it is argued that many settings tend to focus on teaching other subject areas, with many settings placing great emphasis on phonics and storytelling (Kildan and Incikabi 2015).

Attending an early years setting can enhance children’s intellectual development during the first few years of primary school, particularly for disadvantaged children, as it enables them to catch up with their peers (Melhuish et al. 2008; Sylva et al. 2004). However, the quality of the education provided by early years settings can vary, with concerns being raised about the impact of lower quality early years settings on children’s outcomes (Melhuish et al. 2008). One reason for the variation in quality of education provided by early years settings is the variation in qualifications and experience of the staff. Bonetti and Blanden (2020) argue that the presence of a university graduate in an early years setting can have a small but positive impact on children’s attainment. However, in England, there is no requirement for early years settings to employ graduate-level staff (Department for Education 2023).

Research indicates that higher quality preschool education in mathematics can lead to higher learning gains for children in mathematics (Anders et al. 2013; Melhuish et al. 2008). However, the quality of mathematics education provided by early years settings can vary considerably due to the range of qualifications, experiences, confidence levels, and enjoyment when teaching mathematics of early years staff (Pascal, Bertram, and Cole-Albäck 2020). There can also be a lack of awareness of the significance of developing children’s mathematics in everyday situations (Lee and Ginsburg 2007) and an array of literature has revealed how mathematical competencies for teaching under-fives can be overlooked (Cimpian-Robinson et al. 2014).

Those educating the under-fives will have a range of preconceived mathematical ideas and research argues that it is important to consider these views of mathematics; what educators think mathematics is and how it should be taught (Van Oers 2002). It is argued that there is an interrelation between an educator’s mathematical beliefs and knowledge and their general attitude towards mathematics (Thiel 2010). Literacy has been found to have lower rates of anxiety than mathematics, with no correlation identified between the subject and anxiety (Maloney, Schaeffer, and Beilock 2013). Research has highlighted how mathematics teaching can be infused within different components of teaching, with Kildan and Incikabi (2015) arguing that educators can incorporate their enjoyment and confidence of other subjects into mathematics teaching, such as using storytelling to set a meaningful context and facilitate interest and engagement in mathematics (Schiro 1997). Gellert (2000) argues that it is necessary for those educating the under-fives to have a positive emotional attitude towards both mathematics and the teaching of the subject. Research with primary school teachers indicates that there is a significant relationship between a teacher’s beliefs about mathematics and the quality of the instruction they give which then impacts on the mathematical achievement of the children they teach (Stipek et al. 2001). However, Anders and Rossbach (2015) note that this emotional attitude to mathematics of those educating the under-fives is an understudied area. This article aims to address this understudied field by exploring Early Childhood Studies students’ emotional attitude towards mathematics through their reported enjoyment, confidence, and broader experiences of teaching mathematics to the under-fives. In the study, the students were asked to compare their emotional attitude towards mathematics with other subject areas to build an understanding of the emotional attitude towards mathematics in comparison to other subjects. The research question addressed in this study is:

How do Early Childhood Studies students describe their: (a) enjoyment, (b) confidence, and (c) experiences of teaching mathematics to the under-fives in comparison to the other areas of the early years curriculum.

Confidence and enjoyment

Research has indicated that there is a link between an individual’s confidence in their mathematical capabilities and enjoyment whilst teaching, with those who are more confident in their mathematical abilities getting more enjoyment from the teaching of mathematics (Leavy, Bjerke, and Hourigan 2023). Enjoyment in mathematics can be defined as the motive to engage in mathematics (Blömeke, Thiel, and Jenβen 2019). Leavy and Hourigan (2018) argue that enjoyment and confidence in teaching mathematics come from Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), which can be developed during teacher education.

A previous longitudinal study examined the enjoyment and confidence in mathematics of a group of 225 preschool student teachers in Norway (Blömeke, Thiel, and Jenβen 2019). Enjoyment and confidence were tested before, during and after a programme which was designed to enhance their mathematics teaching. The findings implied that as the programme progressed and participants’ confidence increased, so did their enjoyment of mathematics (Blömeke, Thiel, and Jenβen 2019). However, approximately 89% of participants were not available for the final stage of the study, leaving only 26 remaining. Those who remained could potentially have been more inclined to participate due to enjoying mathematics. The beliefs about the relevance and nature of mathematics and the enjoyment of mathematics were explored in a large sample (n = 1851) of prospective preschool teachers in Germany (Blömeke, Dunekacke, and Jenβen 2017). The study included those who were at the beginning of their teacher education and those who were at the end and found that those who were at the end of their teacher education had stronger beliefs in the relevance of mathematics and enjoyed mathematics more than those at the beginning, suggesting that these develop during German teacher education (Blömeke, Dunekacke, and Jenβen 2017).

Russo et al. (2023) probed 118 general primary teachers from 26 different primary schools in Victoria, Australia, who were currently teaching in the early years, about their mathematical experiences and found that confidence, along with enjoyment, increased through enhanced knowledge and experience of mathematics (Russo et al. 2023). It is also important to note that confidence in mathematics is significantly more malleable earlier on in an educator’s career and can be used to set the foundation for future learning and enjoyment (Pfitzner-Eden 2016). Mathematical subject knowledge has also been shown to positively correlate with overall enjoyment of mathematics (Lee 2017). Corroborating data show that poor achievement can impact self-efficacy and take the enjoyment out of teaching mathematics (Buckley, Reid, and Thomson 2016).

Emotions have an impact on day-to-day activities, causing changes to our cognitive and physiological abilities (Russo et al. 2023). Although education is an ‘emotional practice’ (Hargreaves 1998) policy makers do not always consider this when developing and implementing curricula and policy. When on placement, the emotional demands placed on early years students, such as supporting children with complex emotional needs or dealing with complex behaviour issues, are not always considered and it has been identified that students are not always prepared for this aspect of early years work (Solvason, Hodgkins, and Watson 2021).

Educators’ own broader experiences of mathematics

A teacher’s learning experiences during their own mathematical development are described by Van Oers (2002) as their ‘mathematical epistemology’ (p. 22). This mathematical epistemology can be influenced by several factors, including negative past experiences of mathematics and physiological states (Leavy, Bjerke, and Hourigan 2023). Mathematical anxiety can develop due to experiences educators have faced during their own mathematical learning journey (Buckley, Reid, and Thomson 2016). For example, Johnston and Bull (2022) examined educator attitudes towards mathematics and found that experiences of mathematics when growing up were the most significant factor that influenced educator attitudes and anxiety. Negative experiences of mathematics from an early age impacted how educators viewed and solved mathematics in their current practice (Johnston and Bull 2022). Research has indicated that at university level, those educating preservice early childhood educators should understand this connection between experiences of mathematics and anxiety (Gresham and Burleigh 2019). University educators should carefully consider their own attitudes towards mathematics and how they are presenting these to students.

Geist (2015) researched examples of negative mathematical experiences with a group of female student teachers and identified five types of experiences. The first of these was negative parental influence. Those with unengaged parents not only obtained lower scores in mathematics but also developed mathematics anxiety (Macmull and Ashkenazi 2019). The second was mathematical experiences during the student teachers’ own time attending school. These negative mathematical experiences when at school include a non-supportive classroom environment, insensitive teachers, and a lack of resources as well as external examination expectations (Bekdemir 2010). The third was anxiety around mathematics tests and the expectations around the tests. Research has shown that test anxiety increases as students’ progress to secondary school where test expectation rises. Support with tests also wanes when students reach General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) level, the academic qualifications undertaken in a range of subjects by 15- and 16-year-olds in England at the end of their year 11 schooling and demands for increased support have been requested to tackle test anxiety (O’Leary, Fitzpatrick, and Hallett 2017). The next negative experience of mathematics was persistent low achievement in the subject. Mathematical achievement is not only associated with cognitive ability, but also the motivation to engage in the subject (Abin et al. 2020). A Spanish study investigated principles of success, failure, and intrinsic motivation with a cohort of secondary school pupils, with the data portraying differences between age and gender (Abin et al. 2020). The final negative experience was gender differences, whereby boys were favoured over girls by mathematics teachers. It is argued that there is an element of gender bias prevalent that is impacting girls’ confidence and their ability to learn (Cimpian-Robinson et al. 2014). Those who have lower levels of confidence in teaching mathematics are more likely to teach a ‘surface’ level quality of mathematics rather than exploring mathematical concepts at the level of depth required (Buckley, Reid, and Thomson 2016).

Mathematics anxiety is characterised by physiological reactions and negative thoughts towards mathematics (Buckley, Reid, and Thomson 2016) and it is argued that educators who have negative emotions towards mathematics will express intense feelings, such as fear or panic whilst facilitating a lesson (Russo et al. 2023). Stoehr and Olson (2023) propose that these emotions do not suggest that educators dislike mathematics, instead the physiological state is due to fear of failure and lack of self-esteem. These thoughts and feelings can lead to the construction of a negative emotion (Denzin 1984) towards mathematics, and in the case of educators, these negative emotions can impact on an individual’s ability to teach (Frenzel 2014). Individuals may possess a high level of negative emotions and hold irrational beliefs which can cause a low self-esteem and decreased enthusiasm when teaching (Hashmi and Naz 2020).

In a small-scale study of early childhood student teachers (n = 221) in Norway, it was highlighted that older students, and those with experience of working in an early years settings, had lower mathematical anxiety, possibly suggesting that positive experiences with mathematics when working in early years settings can help to reduce mathematical anxiety (Thiel and Jenssen 2018). Similar findings were noted by Hollingsworth and Knight-McKenna (2018), who conducted a small-scale study in the US with nine undergraduate students studying early childhood. The students had expressed considerable anxiety in relation to mathematics at the beginning of a community focused mathematics programme, during which they engaged in applying and practicing their classroom mathematics learning in the local community. However, by the end of the programme, their anxiety levels were reduced, suggesting that providing supportive mathematics teaching experiences is important in supporting students with mathematics anxiety (Hollingsworth and Knight-McKenna 2018).

Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework for this study draws upon Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory (1979), which highlights the influence of the environment around a child. Bronfenbrenner argued that a child’s immediate context, the microsystem, greatly impacts the child. The microsystem includes those closest to the child, such as family and the home environment and can include their school and nursery. With the child and the microsystem at the centre, Bronfenbrenner’s theory is presented with concentric circles around the child, highlighting how the different systems around the child influence them. The second circle around the child is the mesosystem, which emphasises how the connections between those in the child’s microsystem impact on the child, such as the interactions between the child’s parents and their teacher. The next circle is the exosystem, which highlights how external sources can indirectly impact on a child, such as their parents’ work, their extended family, religious organisations, the local community, and online sources, including social media. The outer circle around the child is the macrosystem, which is the wider cultural context during their childhood. The macrosystem can include the economic and political climate, and the education system (Bronfenbrenner 1979).

This study adopts a triadic approach to explore early childhood students’ enjoyment, confidence, and broader experience of teaching mathematics (see Figure 1). It draws upon Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory (1979) by considering how the systems and networks around the early childhood student during their childhood have impacted on each aspect of triad, specifically in relation to the underpinning concept of educating being an ‘emotional practice’ (Hargreaves 1998).

Figure 1. Triadic Overview.

Materials and methods

Conducted within a qualitative interpretive research paradigm, this two-phase study was undertaken using online questionnaires and semi-structured online interviews. The online questionnaires were designed to find out about how confident the students were in teaching mathematics and how much they enjoyed teaching mathematics in comparison to other areas of the early years curriculum (Department for Education 2023). The online interviews were designed to explore the individuals’ responses to the online questionnaire and the reasons behind their responses. This article focuses on the findings of the semi-structured online interviews.

Participants

The participants were all students enrolled on a three-year Bachelor of Arts (Hons) Early Childhood Studies degree at one university in England. The students were enrolled on a campus-based or distance learning delivery of the degree and were either in their second or third year of the degree. First years were not invited to participate as they had only been on the course for approximately three months when the research took place. Due to the different deliveries of the course, online interviews were used, so that all students were able to participate in the study. Throughout the three-years of their degree, the students spend at least one day per week in a placement school or early childhood setting and it is during this placement that students develop their mathematical teaching skills.

There was a prior relationship between the students and the researcher due to the researcher’s role as course leader of the undergraduate degree. This had ethical implications so it was reinforced to all students that participation was not compulsory and would have no impact on their studies. The advantages of being positioned within the research, such as having easier access to students and having a more authentic understanding of the research setting than an outsider would have (Merriam et al. 2001) needed to be balanced against the students’ rights not to participate in the study. Therefore, initial participation in the online questionnaire was anonymous so the researcher was not aware who had participated. Institutional ethical approval was granted for the study.

Interviews

Those who responded to the online questionnaires were invited to participate in an online semi-structured interview. Of the 51 students who completed the online questionnaire, 13 indicated that they would be willing to participate in the online interview by leaving their email address. The researcher contacted all 13 students, with 11 responding and participating in the online interview.

The semi-structured interview was designed to explore participant responses to the online questionnaire in more depth. Students were asked to explain in more detail the reasons behind their ranking of mathematics in comparison to other areas of the curriculum in the online questionnaire. For example, if a student had ranked mathematics lower in comparison to literacy in terms of confidence in teaching they were asked:

Why do you think you feel less confident teaching mathematics compared to literacy?

And if a participant had indicated that they did not enjoy teaching mathematics in comparison to other subjects they were asked:

Why do you not enjoy teaching mathematics compared to the other subjects?

Probing questions were used to encourage students to elaborate on their responses such as:

Please could you tell me more about that?

To explore these responses further, students were asked to describe their broader experiences of teaching mathematics and were asked to elaborate on the professional development they had received. Finally, students were asked if there was any support they felt they needed to develop their enjoyment or confidence in teaching mathematics.

The interviews ranged in length from eleven minutes to twenty-two minutes, with an average length of seventeen minutes. Online, rather than face-to-face interviews, were used to ensure all students enrolled on the course, even those enrolled-on distance learning delivery, would be able to participate in the study. The interviews were conducted using MS Teams and were recorded. The interviews were stored securely on the university OneDrive, which is GDPR compliant.

Data analysis

When all the interviews had been completed, the interviews were fully transcribed before being analysed by the researchers. Thematic analysis was selected as the most suitable method to analyse the qualitative data gathered because it allowed for meaning (‘themes’) to be identified, analysed, and interpreted (Clarke and Braun 2017).

The rigorous six-step framework, outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006), was followed. Firstly, the researchers became familiar with the data by watching the recordings of the interviews and by rereading the transcription. Next, the initial codes were generated and once this was completed for all the interviews, the codes were reviewed, analysed, and sometimes combined, to develop themes and sub-themes. In stage four, the researchers reviewed each of the themes and sub-themes which led to the identification of the four themes detailed below. The four themes were defined and named during stage five of the analysis. The outcomes of stage six can be found below in the writing up of the themes and the illustration of these themes through quotes from the students.

Results

The responses to the questions regarding the reasons for participant’s current enjoyment and confidence when teaching early mathematics generated four key themes. The first of these, ‘broader experiences of mathematics during childhood’, linked the participant’s own experiences of mathematics as a child, both at home and in school, to how they felt about mathematics today. Those who had negative experiences of mathematics as a child, raised this as a reason for their current feelings about mathematics. The second theme, ‘not being ‘good’ at mathematics’, was raised by those who did not rank mathematics highly in comparison to other areas of the curriculum regarding enjoyment and confidence. This links in with the first theme, and their experiences of mathematics in their own childhood. Three students also voiced the opinion that even though they were not ‘good’ at mathematics, they could still ‘cope’ with early mathematics teaching but would not feel confident teaching mathematics to older, primary aged children. This links to the third theme, ‘being able to ‘cope’ with early mathematics’, where students discussed their emotions in relation to mathematics, including ‘fear’, ‘hate’, ‘lack of confidence’, and ‘worry’. The final theme, ‘focus on phonics over mathematics’, was drawn from students’ experiences in settings, where they spoke of a focus on phonics and literacy over mathematics. This was a focus of the planning and teaching, as well as the professional development they had received (Gray 2023).

Discussion

Broader experiences of mathematics during childhood

Students spoke about how their own broader experiences of mathematics during their childhood, both in school and at home, impacted on their enjoyment and confidence in teaching mathematics today. As identified in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system (1979), past experiences in the school and home environment strongly influence an individual. This was evident as students spoke about how their ‘mathematical epistemology’ (Van Oers 2002) formed during their schooling:

I remember my education and I hated it when people would just lose patience really quickly. (Participant B)

The teacher was strict and not very helpful. Once he had explained it, that was it, there was no more. (Participant D)

These students described negative past experiences of mathematics (Leavy, Bjerke, and Hourigan 2023) with their teachers losing patience with them and not being helpful in supporting their mathematical learning. This became an integral aspect of how these students now perceive mathematics.

Not being ‘good’ at mathematics

Students made the links between their early experiences of mathematics and how they felt that they were not ‘good’ at mathematics. For example, when asked why she was less confident at teaching mathematics when compared to other subjects, one participant responded:

Because I hated it [mathematics] in school. As soon as I could give it up, I did. At secondary school my teacher was strict and not very helpful. (Participant C)

This links with previous research which argues that these negative early experiences of mathematics influenced how educators view mathematics in their current practice (Johnston and Bull 2022). As with the previous theme, Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) microsystem is relevant here, whereby students spoke about teachers not helping them at school so that they felt they were failing at mathematics.

Students expressed their own lack of confidence in mathematics and how this lack of confidence meant they did not particularly enjoy teaching mathematics, for example, one student noted:

Personally, I don’t have a great relationship with maths. (Participant E)

The macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner 1979) is relevant here, as government policy and the examination system can influence people’s thoughts about being ‘good’ or ‘not good’ at mathematics. Research indicates that motivation to engage in mathematics will decrease if students do not feel that they are achieving academically (Abin et al. 2020).

Only one student spoke of having confidence in their mathematical capabilities and they spoke about enjoying teaching mathematics to the under-fives. All other students were less confident in their mathematical abilities and did not particularly enjoy teaching mathematics. These findings are in line with previous research, where there is a link between confidence in mathematical abilities and enjoyment from the teaching of mathematics (Leavy, Bjerke, and Hourigan 2023).

Being able to ‘cope’ with early mathematics

Research argues that this lack of confidence in mathematics could impact on the quality of the mathematics education being provided to the under-fives, with those less confident in teaching mathematics not teaching at the deeper conceptual level required to ensure young children have a strong foundation in mathematics during the early years (Buckley, Reid, and Thomson 2016). Students in this study recognised that they were able to teach mathematics in the early years but felt they would struggle to teach mathematics to older children. For example:

I think if it was any older [referring to the age of the children in the early years setting] I wouldn't really be confident and enjoy that. (Participant C)

It’s basic, it’s basic concepts. It’s not like we’re teaching algebra. (Participant E)

Focus on phonics over mathematics in early years settings

Like Kildan and Incikabi (2015), students in this study spoke about the focus on phonics and literacy teaching in their setting, and how they felt these were prioritised over mathematics.

I don’t feel like there’s enough emphasis on maths in the current school I work in. It’s very reading, literacy and phonics based. (Participant D)

They haven't done maths in the last few weeks, I'm like, ‘so should we not be doing maths’. (Participant F)

Considering the macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner 1979), the Early Years Foundation Stage (Department for Education 2023) includes both mathematics and phonics. However, this identified focus on phonics may be due to external pressures of early years settings due to government policy. For example, Ofsted (2023) highlighted phonics as a priority area for inspectors of early years settings in 2023. It is also possible that the students did not notice the mathematics teaching that was going on in their setting and were only identifying mathematics teaching when the teacher was giving explicit mathematics instruction to the children. Linking to research by Lee and Ginsburg (2007), the students may not have picked up on the mathematics taking place in everyday situations, such as during free play and in less formal opportunities.

As highlighted in previous research, students in this study noted a lack of professional development in mathematics in the settings they had worked, particularly when compared to phonics (Cimpian-Robinson et al. 2014). By increasing professional development opportunities for educators, it may improve their confidence and enjoyment in teaching mathematics (Lee 2017; Russo et al. 2023) and it may be particularly helpful to target educators at the early stages of their career (Pfitzner-Eden 2016). Previous studies have also emphasised that more positive experiences of working with mathematics in early years settings can help to reduce the mathematical anxiety of both staff (Thiel and Jenssen 2018) and early years undergraduates (Hollingsworth and Knight-McKenna).

Contribution of this study

This study highlights that the students of Early Childhood Studies who were interviewed for this study, do not particularly enjoy, or feel confident in teaching mathematics to the under-fives and explores the reasons for this. Students indicated that their enjoyment and confidence in teaching mathematics were due to their own broader experiences of mathematics during their childhood and schooling. Drawing on Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory (1979), these findings indicate that the students’ own microsystems during their childhood have shaped their enjoyment and confidence in teaching mathematics in adulthood. The students’ broader experiences during childhood have impacted on their confidence in their own mathematical abilities. These findings build on current knowledge (Buckley, Reid, and Thomson 2016; Johnston and Bull 2022; Leavy, Bjerke, and Hourigan 2023) by highlighting how previous experiences of mathematics have shaped students’ enjoyment and confidence when teaching mathematics and the need for university staff to understand this and use this to inform their own teaching and support of students (Gresham and Burleigh 2019).

These findings indicate that universities should be considering how they can better support early childhood students in teaching mathematics whilst they are at university through the course content, when they are on placement, and as they begin their careers in early years settings, particularly as confidence in mathematics is more malleable earlier on in an educator’s career (Pfitzner-Eden 2016). Further research is needed but this might be achieved through course content, mentor support whilst on placement or personalised tutor support. This links to research by Thiel and Jenssen (2018) and Hollingsworth and Knight-McKenna (2018) which highlights how positive experiences of mathematics in early years settings and the wider community may reduce a student’s mathematical anxiety. The support to develop students’ confidence and competence needs to be planned to ensure young children are receiving high quality mathematics teaching. This article also raises issues around the mathematical professional development available to early years educators and how this is less of a focus than literacy and phonics. Alongside enhancing the mathematics professional development available, educators can also be encouraged to apply their literacy teaching skills, and enthusiasm for literacy, to mathematics teaching, by making use of storytelling in mathematics (Schiro 1997).

Limitations of the study

This study is limited in its generalisability as the study took place in one university in England, with a group of self-selecting, female-only students. Future research should encompass a wider range of students, including early childhood students from other universities and early years educators with a range of experience in early years settings. A longitudinal study could also be conducted to consider changes in students’ mathematical enjoyment, confidence, and experiences of mathematics over the course of their degree.

Conclusion

This article has examined Early Childhood Studies students’ enjoyment, confidence, and broader experiences of teaching mathematics to the under-fives by reporting on the interviews conducted as the second part of a two-phase study which took place in one university in England. The outcomes of the interviews were explored using Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory (1979) as a theoretical framework to build on current knowledge. The findings of this study highlight that the students’ own microsystem during their childhood has shaped their enjoyment and confidence in teaching mathematics in adulthood. These findings have potential implications for the support and teaching offered to Early Childhood Studies students during their degree to support the development of their enjoyment and confidence in teaching mathematics to the under-fives.

Ethics statement

Ethical approval was given by Anglia Ruskin University, School Research Ethics Panel, ESC-SREP-21-140.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).