The struggle of kibbutz women to participate in guard duties during the Arab Revolt, 1936–1939

Abstract

While problems of women's military service in Israel today are attracting increasing scholarly attention, there is little systematic discussion of the events and processes that laid the foundation for the present situation. This article discusses this topic as it emerged in the kibbutz movement during the Arab Revolt of 1936–39 in Palestine. The attempts of women to participate in guarding activities during the British Mandate reveal changes in their self-image during the first half of the twentieth century and the extent to which their aspirations were accepted and realized in the public sphere – security being one of its components. Although this article focuses on security, the issues raised are tightly connected to the social life of women on the kibbutz, the areas of their work, and their involvement in public activities. The kibbutz bulletins, the annual celebrations of International Working Women's Day, women's conventions, ideological seminars, and meetings of the Women Workers' Council reveal the transformations in kibbutz women's role in security matters during the Arab Revolt.

Keywords:

• Palestine
• gender
• Arab Revolt
• kibbutz
• Haganah
• women's military service

Acknowledgments

This article was written within the framework of a research project (no. 134/08) headed by Professor Anita Shapira, supported by the Legacy Hertitage Fund of the Israel Science Foundation. I am grateful to Avner Molcho and Nurit Cohen Levinovsky for their help in collecting documents.

Notes

 1 Yoman Ein Harod, 5 July 1936, Kibbutz Ein Harod Me'uhad Archive (hereafter EHMA).

 2 See for example Barak-Erez, “Al tayasot ve-sarvaniyot matzpun,” 65–98.

 3 “Megamah mesukenet be-Tzahal” (A dangerous trend in the IDF), editorial, Ha'aretz, 26 October 2011.

 4 Naveh, “Nashim ve-tzava,” 18.

 5 See for example Goldstein, War and Gender; Noakes, Women in the British Army.

 6 Izraeli, “Migdur ba-sherut ha-tzva'i be-tzahal”, 85–109; Berkovitch, “‘Eshet hayil mi yimtza?’” 277–318; Sasson-Levy, Zehuyot be-madim.

 7 For an initial historical discussion of this kind in the Yishuv, see Elad, “‘Kol bahur va-tov la-neshek,’” 211–51; Efron, “Ahayot, lohamot ve-imahot,” 353–80; Blum, “Ha-ishah bi-tnu'at ha-avodah.”

 8 For women's service in the Haganah, see, for example, Ha-haganah be-Tel Aviv , 323–40; Ironi-Avrahami, Almoniyot be-haki, 51–82; Eshel, Ha-bahurot ha-hen, 49–63.

 9 Cf. Near, “Ha-hityashvut ha-ovedet,” 529–35. For a variety of issues related to women in the kibbutz, see, for example, Fogiel-Bijaoui, “From Revolution to Motherhood,” 211–31; idem, ed., Ba'ot mi-shtikah ; Kafkafi, “The Psycho-Intellectual Aspect,” 188–211.

10 Cf. Bernstein, Ishah be-Eretz Yisrael, 69; Near, “What Troubled Them?” 124–25; Melman, “Shulayim ve-merkaz,” 253–54.

11 Near, Rak shvil kavshu raglai, 250, 262; Ha-kibbutz be-misparim, no. 12 (June 1936): 7; Cf. Bernstein, Ishah be-Eretz Yisrael, 69; Near, “What Troubled Them?” 124–25; Melman, “Shulayim ve-merkaz,”, no. 21 (November 1939): 22. Two other kibbutz movements, the Religious Kibbutz Movement and Zionist Youth, are not discussed here both for shortage of space and because of the sparsity of relevant material.

12 See, for example, Blum, “Ha-ishah bi-tnu'at ha-avodah,” 70–82; Goldstein, Ba-derekh el ha-ya'ad, 57–71, 217–23; Shilo, Etgar ha-migdar, 181–92.

13 Slutsky, Sefer toldot ha-Haganah, 271, 282–5; Margalit Stern, “‘He Walked through the Fields.’”

14 Fania [Artzi], “Ha-haverah bi-bdidutah” (The lonely woman member), Mibifnim, 5 May 1930. See also Near, “What Troubled Them?” 122–30.

15 Gozal Yitzhak [Yitzhak Tabenkin], “Ba-tnu'ah: Le-she'elot haganatenu” (In the movement: On questions of our defense), Mibfnim, 10 December 1929; Brenner, Ha-Kibbutz ha-Me'uhad ba-Haganah, 158–59.

16 Ha-Shomer ha-Tza'ir, 15 December 1930; Mibfnim, 23 November 1931.

17 Nemilov, Ha-tragediyah ha-biyologit shel ha-ishah; Kafkafi, “Mi-sublimatziyah shel ha-nashiyut,” 328. For the gender issue in the early days of Hashomer Hatza'ir, see also Gofer, “‘Ha-ishah ha-tziyonit,’” 355–72.

18 Chazan, “Ma'avakan shel neshot Ein Harod,” 59.

19 “Le-yom ha-po'elet ha-beinle'umi” (On International Working Women's Day), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 31 March 1935. For International Working Women's Day, see Kaplan, “On the Socialist Origins,” 163–71.

20 Organizational Committee, “Kinus be-yom ha-po'elet ha-beinle'umi” (Conference on International Working Women's Day), 6 April 1935, Yitzhak Tabenkin Archive, Ramat Efal (hereafter YTA), 15-28/14/1.

21 Rachel Katznelson, “Be-yom ha-po'elet ha-beinleumi” (On International Working Women's Day), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 30 April 1935.

22 Yoman Kvutzat Hugim, 12 April 1936, Kibbutz Beit Hashita Archive.

23 “Ha-kinus be-Tel Yosef be-yom ha-po'elet” (The conference in Tel Yosef on Working Women's Day), Yoman Ein Harod, 12 April 1936, EHMA.

24 For the agricultural settlement movement during the first wave of the Arab Revolt, see Slutsky, Sefer toldot ha-Haganah, 676–88; Brenner, Ha-Kibbutz ha-Me'uhad ba-Haganah, 118–31. For the Yishuv during the Arab Revolt, see Shapira, Land and Power, 219–76.

25 See, for example, P., “Ha-ishah ba-haganah” (Women in the Haganah), Yoman ha-Meshek, 25 July 1936, Kibbutz Gvat Archive; “Shomeret, mah mi-leil?” (Woman guard, what happened last night?), Alon Kibbutz Merhavia, 31 July 1936, Hashomer Hatza'ir Archive, Givat Haviva (hereafter HHA), 103-51.1(1); Woman Member, “Ve-od la-inyan hishtatfut ha-haverah be-shmirah” (Again about the participation of women members in defense), Yoman Na'an, 19 August 1936, Kibbutz Na'an Archive.

26 “Ha-zekhut le-haganah” (The right to defend), Alon Mishmar ha-Emek, 10 May 1936, Kibbutz Mishmar Ha'emek Archive.

27 “She'elot ha-sha'ah” (Burning questions), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 10 May 1936.

28 Lilia Bassewitz, “Ma'avak ha-haverot al shituf ba-shmirah” (Women members' struggle to participate in guard duties), Dvar ha-Po'elet, May 1956.

29 “Shiluvei dvarim: Me-divrei haverot be-shurah shel asefot be-Ein Harod she-hayu mukdashot le-verur she'elat shitufah shel ha-haverah ba-haganah” (Combined words: From the speeches of women members at a number of assemblies at Ein Harod devoted to clarifying the question of women members' participation in defense), Mibfnim, June 1936, 83.

30 Letter of Mordechai Hadash to Aharon Tzizling, 14 June 1936, EHMA, 1/7/4. Over the following few weeks various versions of the letter was published in the Ein Harod bulletin and journals of Hakibbutz Hame'uhad, Tzror mikhtavim and Mibifnim. See also Brenner, Ha-Kibbutz ha-Me'uhad ba-Haganah, 160–61.

31 Klonimus, “Im hagigat gmar be-meshek ha-po'alot” (Celebration of the end of the course in the working women's farm), Davar, 16 October 1933.

32 Beba Idelson, “Mikhtav hozer” (Circular letter), 22 June 1936, EHMA, 4.7.1.

33 Protocol of Hakibbutz Ha'artzi Executive Committee in Sarid, 12 May 1936, HHA 5-10.1 (12).

34 Protocol of the general assembly of Ein Harod, 27 June 1936, EHMA; Yedi'ot ha-Mazkirut, no. 11, 29 June 1936, YTA, Hakibbutz Ha'meuhad Archive (hereafter AKM), 2-5/1/1.

35 Protocol of members' meeting at Ein Harod, 1 July 1936, EHMA; “Hahlatot ha-asefah ha-klalit” (Decisions of the general assembly), Yoman Meshek Ein Harod, 3 July 1936, Protocol of the general assembly of Ein Harod, 27 June 1936, EHMA; Yedi'ot ha-Mazkirut, no. 11, 29 June 1936, YTA, Hakibbutz Ha'meuhad Archive (hereafter AKM), 2-5/1/1

36 “Ha-bahurot mitgayesot” (The girls are emlisting), Alon Mishmar ha-Emek, 4 July 1936, Kibbutz Mishmar Ha'emek Archive.

37 “Bahurot Merhaviyah ba-shmirah” (The girls of Merhavia on guard duty), Alon Mishmar ha-Emek, 22 August 1936, Kibbutz Mishmar Ha'emek Archive.

38 Emma [Talmi], “Zekhut haganah la-haverah” (The woman member's right to defend), Hedim (July 1936): 4–6.

39 See, for example, Tzila [Reich], “Al asefat ha-haverot” (On the women members' assembly), Alon Givat Brenner, 15 and 23 July 1936, Kibbutz Givat Brenner Archive; a woman member, “Al shivui ha-zekhuyot” (On equal rights), Alon Kvutzat Na'an, 17 August 1936, Kibbutz Na'an Archive.

40 Geula Shertok, “Le-shituf ha-haverah ba-haganah” (On women members' participation in defense), Alon Givat Brenner, 14 August 1936, Kibbutz Givat Brenner Archive.

41 Protocol of general assembly at Givat Brenner, 8 August 1936, Kibbutz Givat Brenner Archive.

42 Woman member, “Al shivui ha-zekhuyot,” Alon Kvutzat Na'anah, 17 August 1936, Kibbutz Na'an Archive.

43 “Levayat Hayah Freund be-Ramat ha-Kovesh” (Haya Freund's funeral at Ramat Hakovesh), Davar, 19 August 1936; Ramat ha-kovesh, 66, 120; Rivlin, ed., Yemei ramah, 89. Haya Freund was born in Poland in 1913 and immigrated to Palestine in 1934 after agricultural training in Hehalutz.

44 Ramat Ha-kovesh , 126.

45 Ibid., 119–21.

46 Rachel Katznelson, “Le-she'elot ha-sha'ah” (On burning questions), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 25 October 1936.

47 Protocol of general assembly at Givat Brenner, 8 August 1936, Kibbutz Givat Brenner Archive.

48 Zehava Bergman, “Ha-ishah ha-araviyah veha-me'ora'ot” (The Arab woman and the incidents), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 10 June 1936. See also Fleischmann, The Nation and Its “New” Women, 123–35.

49 Jessie Sampter, “Something Happened,” Palestine Post, 31 May 1938. This article was chosen by Berl Katznelson to conclude the controversial book he edited on the unification of the kibbutz movement, Ha-kibbutz veha-kvutzah: Yalkut le-verur she'elat ha-ihud (The kibbutz and the kvutzah: Clarification of the question of unification) (1940). See Shapira, Berl, 250–22; Haim Ben-Asher, “Ha-hakhamah mi-Givat Brenner” (The wise woman from Givat Brenner), Davar, 27 December 1938. See also Badt-Strauss, White Fire, 112–19; Blanshay, “Jessie Sampter,” 76–82.

50 Jessie Sampter, “Watchwomen” (17 August 1936), Jewish Frontier, November 1936, 45, 54.

51 Protocol of conference at Givat Hashlosha, 13 July 1936, YTA, AKM, 15-28/23/7. Sarah Blumenkrantz immigrated from Russia in 1923 and was a member of Kibbutz Tel Yosef until the split in the kibbutz movement in the early 1950s, when she moved to Kibbutz Beit Hashita. Many years later, her daughter, Orna Shimoni, would be one of the founders of the Four Mothers organization, whose public pressure contributed to the decision to withdraw from Lebanon in 2000.

52 Summary of conference on questions of women's work in Tzror mikhtavim, 20 August 1936, 7–8.

53 Sarah Amster, “Al shmirat ha-haverah” (On women members' guard duty), Kibbutz Merhavia bulletin, 4 September 1936, AHH, 103-51.1(1).

54 Protocol of women members' conference in Sarid, 29–30 August 1936, AHH, 20.1(2); decisions of a conference of women members of Jezreel Valley and Haifa Bay kibbutzim, Ha-Shomer ha-Tza'ir, 15 September 1936, 16.

55 Haya [Tanpilov], “She'elot mi-she'elot shonot” (Various questions), Alon Kibbutz Deganyah Alef, 12 March 1937, Kibbutz Degania Alef Archive.

56 Fania [Artzi], “Ha'im ha-haverah nadonah le-akrut” (Is the woman member doomed to impotence?), Alon Kibbutz Deganyah Alef, 16 February 1937, Kibbutz Degania Alef Archive.

57 Brenner, Ha-Kibbutz ha-Me'uhad ba-Haganah, 180.

58 Protokol ha-mo'atzah ha-11 shel ha-Kibbutz ha-Me'uhad (Protocol of the 11th Council of Hakibbutz Hame'uhad), Yagur, 2–7 October 1936 (Ein Harod, 1937), 140.

59 Ibid., 144, 199–200.

60 Brenner, Ha-Kibbutz ha-Me'uhad ba-Haganah, 165, 202; Protocol of a session of the Women Workers' Council, 22–24 December 1936, Labor Archives, Tel Aviv (hereafter LA), IV-230-5-24A.

61 Lilia Bassewitz, ed., “Ha-haverah ba-shmirah” (The woman member on guard duty) supplement to Ein Harod and Tel Yosef bulletin on International Working Women's Day, 20 March 1937, EHMA; “Shaharit ha-yeladim: Mukdeshet le-‘yom ha-po'elet ha-bein-le'umi’” (Children's morning prayer: Dedicated to International Working Women's Day), Yoman Meshek Ein Harod, 19 March 1937, Brenner, Ha-Kibbutz ha-Me'uhad ba-Haganah, 165, 202; Protocol of a session of the Women Workers' Council, 22–24 December 1936, Labor Archives, Tel Aviv (hereafter LA), IV-230-5-24A

62 Mo'etzet ha-Po'alot, “Le-yom ha-po'elet ha-beinle'umi” (On International Working Women's Day), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 11 March 1937.

63 See Shapira, Land and Power, 238.

64 Emma Levin and the Secretariat of Hakibbutz Ha'artzi, circular letter no. 13, 16 February 1937, AHH, 5-3.97 (4); Secretariat of Hakibbutz Ha'artzi, Bulletin, no. 157, 30 May 1937.

65 “Ba-Kibbutz ha-Artzi” (In Hakibbutz Ha'artzi), Hashomer ha-Tza'ir, 1 March 1937, 15; Emma Levin and the Secretariat of Hakibbutz Ha'artzi, circular letter no. 13, 16 February 1937, AHH, 5-3.97 (4); Secretariat of Hakibbutz Ha'artzi, Bulletin, no. 157, 30 May 1937, 15 July 1937, 16.

66 Letter from Ya'ari to members of the seminar, April 1937, AHH, 95-7.26(2). For Ya'ari's illness, see Halamish, Meir Ya'ari, 137–41.

67 “Ha-nosim ba-seminar” (The subjects in the seminar), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 28 July 1937.

68 R.K. [Rachel Katznelson], “Dmut historit” (A historical figure), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 11 August 1940; “Puah Rakovsky bat shmonim” (Puah Rakovsky is eighty years old), Davar, 1 July 1945. See also, Hyman, Gender and Assimilation, 83–86.

69 “Ha-shavu'ah ha-shlishi” (The third week), YTA, 15-28/12/3; Manya Shohat's lecture on women in Hashomer, 20 June 1937, in Goldshtein, Ba-derekh el ha-ya'ad, 264–67. For a reworked version of this lecture, see Manya Shohat, “Ha-ishah ba-Shomer” (Women in Hashomer), Dvar ha-Po'elet, October 1937.

70 R.K. [Rachel Katznelson], “Seminar ha-po'alot” (Working women's seminar), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 2 August 1937.

71 Protocol of acting secretariat of Hakibbutz Hame'uhad, 2 November 1936, YTA, AKM, 2-4/5/3; letter from Hakibbutz Hame'uhad Secretariat to its kibbutzim, 10 February 1937, R.K. [Rachel Katznelson], “Seminar ha-po'alot” (Working women's seminar), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 2 August 1937, 2-culture/2/1; questionnaires filled out by participants in the seminar, ibid.; “Im siyum mifal” (With the end of the project), Tzror mikhtavim, 30 October 1937, 1–6.

72 H. Fish, “Le-zekher Hayele Freund” (In memory of Haya Freund), Tzror mikhtavim, 26 August 1937, 22–23.

73 Rahel, “Ha-haverah ba-hityashvut ha-kibushit” (The woman member in conquest of the land in the settlements), Hedim (September 1938): 20.

74 “Ba-shmirah uva-gvul” (On guard and on the border), Alon Kibbutz Ein ha-Shofet, 11 February 1938, Kibbutz Ein Hashofet Archive, box 4, file 128.

75 Shapira, Land and Power, 249–57; Slutsky, Sefer toldot ha-Haganah, 911–67.

76 N. [Rachel Katznelson], “Ha-ishah ba-hitgonenut (me-sihat haverot)” (Women on the defensive [from a conversation of women members]), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 15 August 1939.

77 Protocol of an activists' discussion on questions of security, 29 July 1938, YTA, AKM, 2–4/5/1.

78 See, for example, Y. H.-G., “Mi-hutz la-bayit” (Outside the home), Yedi'ot Kinneret, 19 August 1938, YTA, 16-4-84/1/16.

79 Protocol of 37th Histadrut Council, 25–26 July 1938, LA.

80 Fania Tomashov, “Le-hagah shel ha-po'elet” (On the working woman's festival), 25 March 1938, Ba-avodah uva-hayim, 25 March 1938, Kibbutz Degania Alef Archive (my emphasis).

81 Hayuta [Busel], “Le-yom ha-po'elet ha-beinle'umi” (On International Working Women's Day), Ba-avodah uva-hayim, 25 March 1938, Kibbutz Degania Alef Archive.

82 Moetzet ha-Po'alot, “Haverot!” (Women comrades!), Davar, 1 April 1938.

83 “Hedei ha-zman” (Echoes of the time), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 28 March 1939.

84 See “Pasiyonariyah hayah u-fe'ilah” (La Pasionaria is alive and active), Davar, 5 January 1937; “Neshei ha-gvurah be-Sfarad” (Heroic women in Spain), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 11 March 1937.

85 Gute [Luria], “Emdat ha-haverah ba-kibbutz ke-gorem hinukhi” (Women's posiiton in the kibbutz as an educational factor), Hedim (September 1938): 18–19.

86 Feige Hindes, “Mah darkenu lehaba?” (What is our future path), Hedim (September 1938): 25–26.

87 D., [no title], Hedim (September 1938): 23–24.

88 Protocol of a meeting of women delegates of the Agricultural Committee/Council, 10 January 1939, YTA, 15-28/23/6.

89 “Hahlatot ha-moshav” (Decisions of the session), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 30 December 1938.

90 Dvora Dayan, “Sikumo shel moshav Mo'etzet ha-Po'alot” (Summary of Women Workers' Council session), Dvar ha-Po'elet, 30 December 1938.

91 Protocol of the 18th session of the Women Workers' Council, 26–27 March 1939, YTA, 15-28/12/1.

92 Women Workers' Council, “Le-yom ha-po'elet ha-beinle'umit” (On International Women Workers' Day), Davar, 3 April 1939.

93 N. [Rachel Katznelson], “Ha-ishah ba-hitgonenut” (n. 76 above).

94 See, Granit-Hacohen, Ishah ivriyah el ha-degel.

95 The information was gathered from the personal information on fallen soldiers cited on the Defense Ministry website where it is not presented as official data. For the number of soldiers killed during the Arab Revolt, see Slutsky, Sefer toldot ha-Haganah, vol. 2, pt. 2, 650, 800–2.

96 Protocol of Ben-Gurion's speech at a conference of the organization of Working Mothers, 3 March 1958, Ben-Gurion Archive, Kiryat Sde Boker, Protocols and Speeches.