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Articles

What do we know about preventing school violence? A systematic review of systematic reviews

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Pages 187-223 | Received 08 Dec 2016, Accepted 11 Jan 2017, Published online: 30 Jan 2017

Abstract

Many children across the world are exposed to school violence, which undermines their right to education and adversely affects their development. Studies of interventions for school violence suggest that it can be prevented. However, this evidence base is challenging to navigate. We completed a systematic review of interventions to reduce four types of school violence: (a) peer violence; (b) corporal punishment; (c) student-on-teacher violence and (d) teacher-on-student violence. Reviewers independently searched databases and journals. Included studies were published between 2005 and 2015; in English; considered school-based interventions for children and measured violence as an outcome. Many systematic reviews were found, thus we completed a systematic review of systematic reviews. Only systematic reviews on interventions for intimate partner violence (IPV) and peer aggression were found. These reviews were generally of moderate quality. Research on both types of violence was largely completed in North America. Only a handful of programmes demonstrate promise in preventing IPV. Cognitive behavioral, social-emotional and peer mentoring/mediation programmes showed promise in reducing the levels of perpetration of peer aggression. Further research needs to determine the long-term effects of interventions, potential moderators and mediators of program effects, program effects across different contexts and key intervention components.

Introduction

School violence undermines children’s right to education and adversely affects their development. The long term consequences are also costly for broader society (Burton & Leoschut, Citation2013). Worryingly, children across the world report exposure to violence at school (Due, Holstein, & Soc, Citation2008).

Although bullying is a major focus of school violence research, violence in schools encompasses much more. Bullying is defined as repeated aggressive episodes where there is a power imbalance between the bully and his/her victim (Menesini & Salmivalli, Citationin press). Bullying is thus a subset of peer violence, a broader group of behaviors that include ‘the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, …. that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation’ (Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi, & Lozano, Citation2002, p. 4). School violence thus includes any violence between students, corporal punishment of students by teachers (Burton & Leoschut, Citation2013), other forms of violence directed at students by teachers such as verbal aggression or rape (Lee, Citation2015), and violence directed by students at teachers (Dzuka & Dalbert, Citation2007; Wilson, Douglas, & Lyon, Citation2011). Furthermore, school violence is specifically defined as violence occurring on school premises, while traveling to or from school, or during a school-sponsored event (http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/youthviolence/schoolviolence/).

A number of interventions have been tested for their potential to prevent school violence. These may be universal (all students participate; Mrazek & Haggerty, Citation1994). Others may target students at increased risk for violence or those already demonstrating violent behaviors, known respectively as selected and indicated interventions (Mrazek & Haggerty, Citation1994). Additionally, interventions using a whole-school approach intervene at multiple levels within a school (Gevers & Flisher, Citation2012), whereas discrete interventions work only with a particular aspect of the school, for example just the students (Gevers & Flisher, Citation2012). Comprehensive programmes address a range of risk behaviors, whereas specific programmes address a particular problem (Gevers & Flisher, Citation2012). Such complexity can make it challenging to determine exactly which interventions are the most effective for different types of school violence.

A number of reviews of school violence interventions have synthesized the literature and so addressed a variety of these issues; thus, following Mikton and Butchart’s (Citation2009) approach to understanding interventions to prevent child maltreatment, we aimed to complete a systematic review of systematic reviews that addressed the question: What do we know about preventing school violence?

Methods

Search strategy

Pairs of research assistants each independently searched 49 electronic databases, 3 clinical trial registries and 10 online journals for articles on school violence (see Appendix A). Searches were limited to papers in English and in publication years 2005–2015, except for those addressing corporal punishment. Two searches of abstracts were conducted. The first used search terms: school AND (violen* OR aggress* OR bully* OR bulli*), while the second used the search terms school AND ‘corporal punishment’. Literature on corporal punishment was sought from 1980 to 2015, because of the small body of work completed on this type of violence in schools (there is a large body of work on parental corporal punishment; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, Citation2016). Experts in the field who were part of the kNOw Violence in Childhood Project School’s Learning Group were also consulted about relevant studies.

Studies were considered relevant if they:

(1)

Were in English;

(2)

Included change in violent behavior or one of its synonyms (such as aggression, externalizing behavior/problems, conduct behavior/problems or intimate partner violence [IPV]) as an outcome;

(3)

Addressed an intervention for violent behavior that was implemented at, or recruited participants from, school; and

(4)

Included pre-primary, primary or secondary school students.

We focused on change in behavior because changes in knowledge and attitudes alone are not sufficient to change behavior (De La Rue, Polanin, Espelage, & Pigott, Citation2014; Whitaker, Murphy, Eckhardt, Hodges, & Cowart, Citation2013). In addition, articles with (a) suicide, (b) school shootings and (c) teacher-on-teacher violence as an outcome were excluded. Information and communication technology interventions (which relate more to cyberbullying), psychopharmacological interventions, and interventions which extended across multiple domains like multisystemic therapy (Henggeler, Melton, Brondino, Scherer, & Hanley, Citation1997), were also excluded.

The initial search identified a large number of relevant systematic reviews, and we therefore decided to do a systematic review of systematic reviews, rather than a systematic review of primary studies (Mikton & Butchart, Citation2009). Research assistants then screened the full text of reviews to determine whether they met an additional inclusion criterion: the review included at least three primary studies about interventions which were implemented at school or recruited participants from school (see Appendix B and C respectively, for included and excluded reviews).

Data extraction

The quality of the relevant reviews was assessed, and descriptive information captured (see Appendix D for extraction document).

We used the AMSTAR tool to assess methodological quality of each review (Shea et al., Citation2009). AMSTAR scores between 0 and 4 indicate that a review is of poor quality, scores between 5 and 8 indicate moderate quality, and scores of 9–11 indicate high quality (Mikton & Butchart, Citation2009). A second reviewer checked 42% of the AMSTAR scores. An intra-class correlation coefficient of above .80 was achieved, indicating a good level of coding consistency (Aspland & Gardner, Citation2003).

Results

Our initial screening identified over 400 systematic reviews. A second round of screening found 36 that were eligible for inclusion (see Figure ). These only addressed interventions for IPV and peer aggression.

Figure 1. PRISMA flowchart.

Figure 1. PRISMA flowchart.

A small number of narrative reviews and primary studies (which were excluded) were identified on student-on-teacher violence, teacher-on-student violence and corporal punishment in schools.

IPV

Five reviews of interventions for IPV were identified. On average, these were of moderate quality (see Table ).

Table 1. Quality of reviews on intimate partner violence.

Descriptions of programmes to prevent IPV

Since a number of school-based IPV prevention programmes have been studied using randomised controlled trials (RCTs) – the strongest evaluation design – we report only on these 11 programmes (see Table ).

Table 2. Intimate partner violence programmes assessed in RCTs with behavioral outcomes.

All programmes were universal and largely specific to IPV, and barring two (the building-based version of Shifting Boundaries, which targeted the whole school; Taylor, Stein, Mumford, & Woods, Citation2013; and the Safe Dates poster and theatre elements; Foshee et al., Citation2005) were discrete. Interventions were aimed at high school students of both genders, with the lone exception of Coaching Boys into Men, which focused only on boys (Miller et al., Citation2013).

All but one of the primary studies included in the reviews were completed on the North American continent (10 studies), and largely in the USA. One study by Jewkes et al. (Citation2008) was conducted in the African region (South Africa), and none in any other region. Yet rates of IPV are highest in Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean and South East Asia, followed by the Americas (Stöckl, Devries, & Watts, Citation2015). Most programmes have thus been tested in contexts that need them least.

Evidence for programmes to prevent IPV

Safe Dates (Foshee et al., Citation2005), the Fourth R (Wolfe et al., Citation2009), Stepping Stones (Jewkes et al., Citation2008) and the building-level version of Shifting Boundaries (Taylor et al., Citation2013) stand out as the only programmes that achieved positive effects (see Table ). Teachers, project staff and health educators implemented these programmes. The duration of the latter three programmes seemed to average around 7 weeks. However, number of sessions ranged from 10 to 21. Safe Dates (Foshee et al., Citation2005), the Fourth R (Wolfe et al., Citation2009) and Stepping Stones (Jewkes et al., Citation2008) are also conspicuous as having been studied in trials with the strongest methods for determining evidence of effect in that they have the longest follow-up periods (3, 2.5 and 2 years, respectively). The Safe Dates trial was also strong in that it measured the widest range of forms of dating violence, and was able to show that effects for several forms of violence persisted over time (Foshee et al., Citation1998, 2004, 2005, 2000, 1996). Two programmes – the Law and Justice Curriculum (Taylor, Stein, & Burden, Citation2010a) and Interaction-Based Treatment (Taylor et al., Citation2010a) – were identified as possibly doing harm, in that they led to increased reporting of perpetration.

Table 3. Effectiveness of intimate partner violence prevention programmes.

No program had been studied in more than one RCT, and so the evidence for any program can at best only be considered promising by two of the current standards for prevention science: Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development (http://www.blueprintsprograms.com), and those of the Society for Prevention Research (Gottfredson et al., Citation2015). Many of the trials reviewed also had some risk of bias (De Koker, Mathews, Zuch, Bastien, & Mason-Jones, Citation2014; Whitaker et al., Citation2006).

Moderation effects are also key in understanding programmes (Gottfredson et al., Citation2015): Safe Dates has produced evidence that there is no difference in effectiveness by gender, by white vs. other ethnicity, or by whether students had previous experience of dating violence; but the trial of the Fourth R showed that the effect was present only for boys (Whitaker et al., Citation2013).

Safe Dates thus appears to be the most effective school-based program for preventing dating violence, but the evidence base in general needs much more development.

Peer aggression

We identified a total of 31 reviews addressing effectiveness of interventions to prevent peer aggression. AMSTAR scores (see Table ) had a mean of 6, indicating that on average the reviews were of moderate quality. Nearly 40% (387) of the primary studies on school-based interventions evaluated the interventions in RCTs, and 213 (22%) utilized quasi-experimental designs. However, many reviews did not provide information on study design.

Table 4. Quality of reviews on peer aggression.

Descriptions of programmes to prevent peer aggression

Universal interventions were much more commonly included in the reviews than selected and indicated interventions, as were discrete rather than multi-level or whole-school interventions (see Table ). There were also more specific than comprehensive programmes. Nearly half of all the interventions targeted children of primary school age. Interventions were also generally delivered to both genders.

Table 5. Characteristics of school-based programmes with effects on peer aggression.

Most of the interventions were studied in North America, specifically within the USA (see Table and Figure ). This is exceptionally problematic as countries outside the USA show comparable, if not higher; levels of peer aggression (for instance, see; Chen & Avi Astor, Citation2010).

Table 6. No of studies by country, by WHO regions.

Figure 2. WHO regions covered by peer aggression programmes.

Figure 2. WHO regions covered by peer aggression programmes.

Evidence for programmes to prevent peer aggression

We analyzed effectiveness in reducing peer victimization (see Table ) and perpetration of peer aggression (see Table ) separately. Less than half the studies used RCTs to examine program effects, thus some caution is required when interpreting findings relating to effectiveness of interventions.

Table 7. Effectiveness of peer aggression programmes to prevent victimisation.

Table 8. Effectiveness of peer aggression programmes to prevent perpetration.

Prevention of victimization

Only eight reviews considered program effectiveness for reducing peer victimisation. The specific type of victimization explored in evaluations was not often specified, but when it was, the focus was on physical and relational victimization. The vast majority of programmes were universal in terms of target, and the majority of these scored poorly in terms of effectiveness. The single selective intervention was found to be ineffective. Most were discrete interventions and of these, only cognitive behavioral programmes showed promise for preventing victimization. Violence prevention programmes showed some promise in preventing victimization only when implemented as a whole-school intervention. No harmful effects were noted in this area overall. These findings tentatively suggest that discrete, cognitive-behavioral programmes that specifically target the prevention of victimisation show promise, and that consideration should be given to ways they can be included in whole-school interventions.

Programmes to prevent perpetration

All 31 reviews considered the capacity of school-based interventions to reduce perpetration of peer aggression. Intervention effects on the perpetration of aggression or violence (verbal or physical) in particular were considered in nearly every review, followed by studies that assessed broader outcomes that may include aggression, such as externalizing behavior.

Universal interventions seem to have undergone the most testing, followed by selected interventions, interventions where this information was not specified, and then indicated interventions. The majority of these were scored as effective, with 58% of the unspecified interventions scoring a 1 and 89% of the indicated interventions scoring 1. There is some evidence that the effects of universal interventions endure beyond the immediate post-test. For selected and indicated interventions, these effects were largely only found at post-test. Interventions which did not specify their prevention target demonstrated more mixed effects for reducing peer aggression immediately after program completion; however longer-term follow-up effects were largely positive.

With regards to intervention approaches, discrete programmes had the most evidence for effectiveness, followed by multi-level and whole-school programmes – although it should be noted that approach was specified in less than half of the reviews. Socio-emotional programmes have been found to be one of the most promising approaches, while cognitive behavioral and peer mentoring/mediation interventions have also fairly consistently demonstrated positive results. There was a broad range in the duration of these programmes. Socio-emotional programmes generally seemed to offer around 16 sessions. Unfortunately, session number information was often not specified. Program sessions were also implemented at a varying rate; once or twice a week seemed fairly common. Various school (mostly teachers) and research personnel were often involved in their implementation as well. Other types of intervention were effective in some studies but ineffective or harmful in others. Very few studies considered the effectiveness of whole-school programmes, suggesting the need for further research on these types of interventions. Promisingly, across all reviews, harmful effects (i.e. increased reports of perpetration) were reported in very few studies.

Only a handful of the reviews considered moderators of program effects. Well implemented cognitive behavioral interventions and those with more sessions each week were found to be beneficial (Wilson & Lipsey, Citation2006b). Considering socio-emotional and cognitive behavioral programmes together there was mixed evidence for short program duration to be associated with positive effects (Gansle, Citation2005; Sklad, Diekstra, De Ritter, Ben, & Gravesteijn, Citation2012), however a trend towards younger students benefiting more from these types of interventions was found in two reviews (Sklad et al., Citation2012; Stoltz, van Londen, Dekovic, de Castro, & Prinzie, Citation2012).

Discussion

There is very little literature on prevention of teacher-on-student violence (including corporal punishment) and student-on-teacher violence, even though these forms of violence seem quite common (see, for instance; Burton & Leoschut, Citation2013; Chen & Wei, Citation2011; Lee, Citation2015). More promisingly, there is a great deal of literature addressing prevention of IPV and even more dealing with peer aggression at school, although there are substantial gaps even here.

One key gap in the field is that studies often only measure one outcome, even where a program is theoretically likely to reduce more than one form of violence. For instance, peer aggression and dating violence share common risk factors (Smallbone & McKillop, Citation2015), and reductions in dating violence are thus highly likely to follow from interventions to reduce peer violence. Similarly, victimisation is seldom measured as an outcome. Importantly, the field of violence prevention will only be advanced if specific effects on aggressive behavior are reported separately from other forms of externalizing behaviors.

More high quality studies are also needed: RCTs with longer follow-up periods, lower risk of bias, and which explore mediation and moderation effects, will allow us to understand which programmes have sustained effects, what theoretical perspectives drive effective programmes (and so to understand not only what programmes work, but also why they work), and which programmes are generalizable to which groups (Gottfredson et al., Citation2015; Whitaker et al., Citation2006, 2013).

Another bias in the literature is that research on the effectiveness of interventions was almost exclusively completed in wealthier regions, particularly in the USA. This is exceptionally problematic, as school violence is a global problem (see, for instance; Burton & Leoschut, Citation2013; Chen & Avi Astor, Citation2010; Due et al., Citation2008; Fernandez-Fuertes & Fuertes, Citation2010; Wubs et al., Citation2009). More studies in high-violence, low-resource contexts are urgently needed.

Some interventions were identified as harmful, in that they led to increasing reports of aggression. This may be because programmes increased awareness and thus increased reporting (Taylor et al., Citation2010a; Taylor, Stein, & Burden, Citation2010b), but it may also have been because of adverse reactions to the intervention (DeGue et al., Citation2014). It may also be an artefact of study design: studies with short follow-up periods will be unable to differentiate an increase in response to heightened awareness from those that actually cause increased aggression, as it takes time for reporting to stabilize in response to awareness and then to decline in response to an effective program.

Another important focus for new studies should be components of effective interventions (Whitaker et al., Citation2013). This could be done either through developing and testing new programmes that build on what has been learned about effective interventions (Whitaker et al., Citation2006), or through meta-analytic studies of successful programmes (see, for instance; Kaminski, Valle, Filene, and Boyle, Citation2008). Studies of this nature assist in identifying the ‘active ingredients’ in programmes (Embry & Biglan, Citation2008).

This review does have some limitations. Firstly, we included only systematic reviews, and the information we were able to extract from each review was dependent on what was reported. This strategy means that promising interventions that had not yet been included in a review would have been missed. Secondly, we were unable to determine the extent of primary study duplication across the reviews on peer aggression. Therefore, the true size of the evidence base on school-based violence prevention interventions remains somewhat unclear. Thirdly, we only included studies published in English. Thus, our results do not reflect the findings of any possible reviews on school violence interventions published in other languages.

Despite these limitations, it is clear that a number of violence prevention initiatives have been successfully delivered at school. Several promising interventions to prevent IPV could be identified. Cognitive behavioral, social-emotional and peer mentoring/mediation programmes were effective for preventing perpetration of peer violence, and cognitive behavioral and whole-school violence prevention programmes show promise for preventing peer victimisation. While the field needs considerable development in order to be regarded as having a strong evidence base, the existing literature does provide us with a good foundation for tackling this serious problem.

Funding

This work was supported by a grant from the Know Violence in Childhood Learning Initiative, via the Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention; and by two grants to the first author: a Department of Science and Technology – National Research Foundation (South Africa) Centre of Excellence in Human Development doctoral scholarship [grant number D20160038]; and a University of Cape Town Doctoral Research Scholarship. Opinions expressed, and conclusions arrived at, are those of the authors and are not to be attributed to the CoE in Human Development.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Acknowledgements

We thank Alex D’Angelo, librarian at the University of Cape Town, who provided enormous help with the search strategy for this review. We are also extremely grateful to our research assistants: Amy Scheepers, Christina Barnes, Dina Hammerschlag, Ashleigh Nestadt, Tamsyn Naylor, Alexa Berlein, Nina Abrahams, and Thomas Guattari-Stafford, who helped with completing data screening and extraction.

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  • Oliver, R., Reschly, D., & Wehby, J. (2011). The effects of teachers’ classroom management practices on disruptive, or aggressive student behavior: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2011 (4), 1–55. doi:10.4073/csr.2011.4
  • Park-Higgerson, H.-K., Perumean-Chaney, S. E., Bartolucci, A. A., Grimley, D. M., & Singh, K. P. (2008). The evaluation of school-based violence prevention programs: A meta-analysis. Journal of School Health, 78, 465–479. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00332.x
  • Reddy, L. A., Newman, E., De Thomas, C. A., & Chun, V. (2009). Effectiveness of school-based prevention and intervention programs for children and adolescents with emotional disturbance: A meta-analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 47, 77–99. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2008.11.001
  • Reese, R. J., Prout, H. T., Zirkelback, E. H., & Anderson, C. R. (2010). Effectiveness of school-based psychotherapy: A meta-analysis of dissertation research. Psychology in the Schools, 47, 1035–1045. doi:10.1002/pits.20522
  • Sancassiani, F., Pintus, E., Holte, A., Paulus, P., Moro, M. F., Cossu, G., … Lindert, J. (2015). Enhancing the emotional and social skills of the youth to promote their wellbeing and positive development: A systematic review of universal school-based randomized controlled trials. Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 11 (Suppl. 1 M2), 21–40. doi:10.2174/174501790151101002110.2174/1745017901511010021
  • Schindler, H. S., Kholoptseva, J., Oh, S. S., Yoshikawa, H., Duncan, G. J., Magnuson, K. A., & Shonkoff, J. P. (2015). Maximizing the potential of early childhood education to prevent externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 53, 243–263. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2015.04.001
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  • Sklad, M., Diekstra, R., De Ritter, M., Ben, J., & Gravesteijn, C. (2012). Effectiveness of school-based universal, social, emotional, and behavioural programs: Do they enhance students’ development in the area of skill, behaviour, and adjustment? Psychology in the Schools, 49, 892–909. doi:10.1002/pits.21641
  • Smallbone, S., & McKillop, N. (2015). Evidence-informed approaches to preventing sexual violence and abuse. In P. D. Donnelly & C. L. Ward (Eds.), Oxford textbook of violence prevention: Epidemiology, evidence, and policy (pp. 177–184). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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  • Stoltz, S., van Londen, M., Dekovic, M., de Castro, B. O., & Prinzie, P. (2012). Effectiveness of individually delivered indicated school-based interventions on externalizing behavior. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 36, 381–388. doi:10.1177/0165025412450525
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  • Vidrine, S. (n.d.). A meta-analysis of interventions targeting executive function to improve externalizing behavior ( 08876177). Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=97825234&site=ehost-live
  • Vreeman, R. C., & Carroll, A. E. (2007). A systematic review of school-based interventions to prevent bullying. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 78–88. doi:10.1001/archpedi.161.1.78
  • Whitaker, D. J., Morrison, S., Lindquist, C., Hawkins, S. R., O’Neil, J. A., Nesius, A. M., … Reese, L. R. (2006). A critical review of interventions for the primary prevention of perpetration of partner violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11, 151–166. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2005.07.007
  • Whitaker, D. J., Murphy, C. M., Eckhardt, C. I., Hodges, A. E., & Cowart, M. (2013). Effectiveness of primary prevention efforts for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 4, 175–195. doi:10.1891/1946-6560.4.2.175
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  • Wilson, S. J., & Lipsey, M. W. (2006b). The effects of school-based social information processing interventions on aggressive behavior, part I: Universal programs. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2006 (5), 1–42. doi:10.4073/csr.2006.5.
  • Wilson, S. J., & Lipsey, M. W. (2007). School-based interventions for aggressive and disruptive behavior: Update of a meta-analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(Suppl. 2), S130–S143. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.04.011
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Appendix A.

List of searched databases, trial registries and online journals

Appendix B.

References of included reviews

Allen-Meares, P., Montgomery, K. L., & Kim, J. S. (2013). School-based social-work interventions: A cross-national systematic review. Social Work, 58(3), 253–262. doi:10.1093/sw/swt022

Barnes, T. N., Smith, S. W., & Miller, M. D. (2014). School-based cognitive-behavioral interventions in the treatment of aggression in the United States: A meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(4), 311–321. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2014.04.013

Blank, L., Baxter, S., Goyder, E., Naylor, P., Guillaume, L., Wilkinson, A., … Chilcott, J. (2010). Promoting well‐being by changing behaviour: a systematic review and narrative synthesis of the effectiveness of whole secondary school behavioural interventions. Mental Health Review Journal, 15(2), 43–53. doi:10.5042/mhrj.2010.0371

Bond, C., Woods, K., Humphrey, N., Symes, W., & Green, L. (2013). Practitioner Review: The effectiveness of solution focused brief therapy with children and families: a systematic and critical evaluation of the literature from 1990–2010. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 54(7), 707–723.

Bonell, C., Wells, H., Harden, A., Jamal, F., Fletcher, A., Thomas, J., … Moore, L. (2013). The effects on student health of interventions modifying the school environment: Systematic review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 67(8), 677–681. doi:10.1136/jech-2012–202247

De Koker, P., Mathews, C., Zuch, M., Bastien, S., & Mason-Jones, A. J. (2014). A systematic review of interventions for preventing adolescent intimate partner violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 54(1), 3–13. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.08.008

De La Rue, L., Polanin, J., Espelage, D., & Pigott, T. (2014). School-Based Interventions to Reduce Dating and Sexual Violence: A Systematic Review.

Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2006(6), 1-37. doi:10.4073/csr.2006.6

Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2011(4), 1–55. doi:10.4073/csr.2011.4

Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2014(7), 1–110. doi:10.4073/csr.2014.7

DeGue, S., Valle, L. A., Holt, M. K., Massetti, G. M., Matjasko, J. L., & Tharp, A. T. (2014). A systematic review of primary prevention strategies for sexual violence perpetration. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(4), 346–362. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2014.05.004

Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The Impact of Enhancing Students’ Social and Emotional Learning: A Meta-Analysis of School-Based Universal Interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432. doi:10.1111/j.1467–8624.2010.01564.x

Dymnicki, A. B., Weissberg, R. P., & Henry, D. B. (2011). Understanding How Programs Work to Prevent Overt Aggressive Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis of Mediators of Elementary School-Based Programs. Journal of School Violence, 10(4), 315–337.

Fagan, A. A., & Catalano, R. F. (2013). What works in youth violence prevention: A review of the literature. Research on Social Work Practice, 23(2), 141–156. doi:10.1177/1049731512465899

Farahmand, F. K., Grant, K. E., Polo, A. J., Duffy, S. N., & DuBois, D. L. (2011). School-Based Mental Health and Behavioral Programs for Low-Income, Urban Youth: A Systematic and Meta-Analytic Review. Clinical Psychology-Science and Practice, 18(4), 372–390. doi:10.1111/j.1468–2850.2011.01265.x

Gansle, K. A. (2005). The effectiveness of school-based anger interventions and programs: A meta-analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 43(4), 321–341. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2005.07.002

Gavine, A. J., Donnelly, P. D., & Williams, D. J. (2016). Effectiveness of universal school-based programs for prevention of violence in adolescents. Psychology of Violence, 6(3), 390–399. doi:10.1037/vio0000052

Hahn, R., Fuqua-Whitley, D., Wethington, H., Lowy, J., Crosby, A., Fullilove, M., … Dahlberg, L. (2007). Effectiveness of universal school-based programs to prevent violent and aggressive behavior: a systematic review. Am J Prev Med, 33(2 Suppl), S114–129. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.04.012

Hale, D. R., Fitzgerald-Yau, N., & Mark Viner, R. (2014). A Systematic Review of Effective Interventions for Reducing Multiple Health Risk Behaviors in Adolescence. American Journal of Public Health, 104(5), e19-e41. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2014.301874

Leff, S. S., Waasdorp, T. E., & Crick, N. R. (2010). A Review of Existing Relational Aggression Programs: Strengths, Limitations, and Future Directions. School Psychology Review, 39(4), 508–535.

Limbos, M. A., Chan, L. S., Warf, C., Schneir, A., Iverson, E., Shekelle, P., & Kipke, M. D. (2007). Effectiveness of interventions to prevent youth violence a systematic review. Am J Prev Med, 33(1), 65–74. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.02.045

Moestue, H., Moestue, L., & Muggah, R. (2013). Youth violence prevention in Latin America and the Caribbean: a scoping review of the evidence. NOREF.

Mytton, J., DiGuiseppi, C., Gough, D., Taylor, R., & Logan, S. (2006). School-based secondary prevention programmes for preventing violence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev(3), CD004606. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004606.pub2

Oliver, R., Reschly, D., & Wehby, J. (2011). The Effects of Teachers’ Classroom Management Practices on Disruptive, or Aggressive Student Behavior: A Systematic Review.

Park-Higgerson, H.-K., Perumean-Chaney, S. E., Bartolucci, A. A., Grimley, D. M., & Singh, K. P. (2008). The Evaluation of School-Based Violence Prevention Programs: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of School Health, 78(9), 465–479. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00332.x

Reddy, L. A., Newman, E., De Thomas, C. A., & Chun, V. (2009). Effectiveness of school-based prevention and intervention programs for children and adolescents with emotional disturbance: a meta-analysis. J Sch Psychol, 47(2), 77–99. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2008.11.001

Reese, R. J., Prout, H. T., Zirkelback, E. H., & Anderson, C. R. (2010). Effectiveness of school-based psychotherapy: A meta-analysis of dissertation research. Psychology in the Schools, 47(10), 1035–1045. doi:10.1002/pits.20522

Sancassiani, F., Pintus, E., Holte, A., Paulus, P., Moro, M. F., Cossu, G., … Lindert, J. (2015). Enhancing the Emotional and Social Skills of the Youth to Promote their Wellbeing and Positive Development: A Systematic Review of Universal School-based Randomized Controlled Trials. Clinical practice and epidemiology in mental health : CP & EMH, 11(Suppl 1 M2), 21–40. doi:10.2174/1745017901511010021

Schindler, H. S., Kholoptseva, J., Oh, S. S., Yoshikawa, H., Duncan, G. J., Magnuson, K. A., & Shonkoff, J. P. (2015). Maximizing the potential of early childhood education to prevent externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis. J Sch Psychol, 53(3), 243–263. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2015.04.001

Sklad, M., Diekstra, R., De Ritter, M., Ben, J., & Gravesteijn, C. (2012). Effectiveness of school-based universal, social, emotional, and behavioural programs: Do they enhance students’ development in the area of skill, behaviour, and adjustment? . Psychology in the Schools, 49(9), 892–909. doi:10.1002/pits.21641

Stoltz, S., van Londen, M., Dekovic, M., de Castro, B. O., & Prinzie, P. (2012). Effectiveness of individually delivered indicated school-based interventions on externalizing behavior. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 36(5), 381–388. doi:10.1177/0165025412450525

Tolan, P., Henry, D., Schoeny, M., Bass, A., Lovegrove, P., & Nichols, E. (2013). Mentoring Interventions to Affect Juvenile Delinquency and Associated Problems: A Systematic Review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2013(10), 1–48. doi:10.4073/csr.2013.10

Vidrine, S. (n.d). A Meta-Analysis of Interventions Targeting Executive Function to Improve Externalizing Behavior (08876177). Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct = true&db = aph&AN = 97825234&site = ehost-live

Vreeman, R. C., & Carroll, A. E. (2007). A systematic review of school-based interventions to prevent bullying. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161(1), 78–88. doi:10.1001/archpedi.161.1.78

Whitaker, D. J., Morrison, S., Lindquist, C., Hawkins, S. R., O’Neil, J. A., Nesius, A. M., … Reese, L. R. (2006). A critical review of interventions for the primary prevention of perpetration of partner violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11(2), 151–166. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2005.07.007

Whitaker, D. J., Murphy, C. M., Eckhardt, C. I., Hodges, A. E., & Cowart, M. (2013). Effectiveness of primary prevention efforts for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 4(2), 175–195. doi:10.1891/1946-6560.4.2.175

Wilson, S. J., & Lipsey, M. W. (2006a). The Effects of School-Based Social Information Processing Interventions on Aggressive Behavior: Part II: Selected/Indicated Pull-Out Programs: A Systematic Review.

Wilson, S. J., & Lipsey, M. W. (2006b). The Effects of School-Based Social Information Processing Interventions on Aggressive Behavior, Part I: Universal Programs. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2006(5), 1–42. doi:10.4073/csr.2006.5

Wilson, S. J., & Lipsey, M. W. (2007). School-Based Interventions for Aggressive and Disruptive Behavior: Update of a Meta-Analysis. American journal of preventive medicine, 33(2 Suppl), S130-S143. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.04.01

Appendix C.

Excluded reviews' reasons for exclusion and references

Barlow, J., Smailagic, N., Ferriter, M., Bennett, C., & Jones, H. (2010). Group-based parent-training programmes for improving emotional and behavioural adjustment in children from birth to three years old. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews(3). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003680.pub2

Baskin, T. W., Slaten, C. D., Crosby, N. R., Pufahl, T., Schneller, C. L., & Ladell, M. (2010). Efficacy of Counseling and Psychotherapy in Schools: A Meta-Analytic Review of Treatment Outcome Studies 1Ψ7. The Counseling Psychologist, 38(7), 878–903. doi:10.1177/0011000010369497

Beelmann, A., & Raabe, T. (2009). The effects of preventing antisocial behavior and crime in childhood and adolescence: Results and implications of research reviews and meta-analyses. European Journal of Developmental Science, 3(3), 260–281.

Bonell, C., Jamal, F., Harden, A., Wells, H., Parry, W., Fletcher, A., … Moore, L. (2013). Systematic review of the effects of schools and school environment interventions on health: evidence mapping and synthesis. doi:10.3310/phr01010

Bowman-Perrott, L., Burke, M. D., Nan, Z., & Zaini, S. (2014). Direct and Collateral Effects of Peer Tutoring on Social and Behavioral Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis of Single-Case Research. School Psychology Review, 43(3), 260–285.

Candelaria, A. M., Fedewa, A. L., & Ahn, S. (2012). The effects of anger management on children’s social and emotional outcomes: A meta-analysis. School Psychology International. doi:10.1177/0143034312454360

Cobb, B., Sample, P. L., Morgen, A., & Johns, N. R. (2006). Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions, Dropout, and Youth With Disabilities: A Systematic Review. Remedial and Special Education, 27(5), 259–275.

Edwards, S. R., & Hinsz, V. B. (2014). A Meta-Analysis of Empirically Tested School-Based Dating Violence Prevention Programs. SAGE Open, 4(2). doi:10.1177/2158244014535787

Ehiri, J. E., Hitchcock, L. I., Ejere, H. O. D., & Mytton, J. A. (2007). Primary prevention interventions for reducing school violence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews(1). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006347

Fellmeth, G. L., Heffernan, C., Nurse, J., Habibula, S., & Sethi, D. (2013). Educational and Skills-Based Interventions for Preventing Relationship and Dating Violence in Adolescents and Young Adults: A Systematic Review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 14. doi:10.4073/csr.2013.14

Ferguson, C. J., Miguel, C. S., Kilburn, J. C., & Sanchez, P. (2007). The Effectiveness of School-Based Anti-Bullying Programs: A Meta-Analytic Review. Criminal Justice Review, 32(4), 401–414. doi:10.1177/0734016807311712

Grove, A. B., Evans, S. W., Pastor, D. A., & Mack, S. D. (2008). A meta-analytic examination of follow-up studies of programs designed to prevent the primary symptoms of oppositional defiant and conduct disorders. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13(3), 169–184. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2008.03.001

Hahn, R., Fuqua-Whitley, D., Wethington, H., Lowy, J., Liberman, A., Crosby, A., … Dahlberg, L. (2007). The Effectiveness of Universal School-Based Programs for the Prevention of Violent and Aggressive Behavior: A Report on Recommendations of the Task Force on Community Preventive Services. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), 56(RR07), 1–12.

Hahn, R. A., Bilukha, O., Crosby, A., Fullilove, M. T., Liberman, A., Moscicki, E., … Task Force on Community Preventive, S. (2005). Firearms laws and the reduction of violence: a systematic review. Am J Prev Med, 28(2 Suppl 1), 40–71. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2004.10.005

Hankin, A., Hertz, M., & Simon, T. (2011). Impacts of Metal Detector Use in Schools: Insights From 15 Years of Research*. Journal of School Health, 81(2), 100–106. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2010.00566.x

January, A. M., Casey, R. J., & Paulson, D. (2011). A Meta-Analysis of Classroom-Wide Interventions to Build Social Skills: Do They Work? School Psychology Review, 40(2), 242–256.

Klasen, H., & Crombag, A.-C. (2013). What works where? A systematic review of child and adolescent mental health interventions for low and middle income countries. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48(4), 595–611. doi:10.1007/s00127-012-0566-x

Kristjansson, E., Robinson, V., Petticrew, M., MacDonald, B., Krasevec, J., Laura Janzen, … Tugwell, P. (2006). School Feeding for Improving the Physical and Psychosocial Health of Disadvantaged Students. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 14. doi:10.4073/csr.2006.14

Maggin, D. M., Chafouleas, S. M., Goddard, K. M., & Johnson, A. H. (2011). A systematic evaluation of token economies as a classroom management tool for students with challenging behavior. J Sch Psychol, 49(5), 529–554. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2011.05.001

Maggin, D. M., Johnson, A. H., Chafouleas, S. M., Ruberto, L. M., & Berggren, M. (2012). A systematic evidence review of school-based group contingency interventions for students with challenging behavior. Journal of School Psychology, 50(5), 625–654. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2012.06.001

Matjasko, J. L., Vivolo-Kantor, A. M., Massetti, G. M., Holland, K. M., Holt, M. K., & Dela Cruz, J. (2012). A systematic meta-review of evaluations of youth violence prevention programs: Common and divergent findings from 25 years of meta-analyses and systematic reviews. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(6), 540–552. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.06.006

McCart, M. R., Priester, P. E., Davies, W. H., & Azen, R. (2006). Differential Effectiveness of Behavioral Parent-Training and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Antisocial Youth: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(4), 525–541. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9031-1

Meirelles dos Santos, M. B., & Giglio, J. S. (2012). P-1158 – Group play therapy for children promising findings of a systematic revision of literature. European Psychiatry, 27, 1–1. doi:10.1016/S0924-9338(12)75325-7

Montgomery, P., & Maunders, K. (2015). The effectiveness of creative bibliotherapy for internalizing, externalizing, and prosocial behaviors in children: A systematic review. Children and Youth Services Review, 55, 37–47. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.05.010

Ozabaci, N. (2011). Cognitive behavioural therapy for violent behaviour in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(10), 1989–1993. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.05.027

Parker, B., & Turner, W. (2013). Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Psychotherapy for Children and Adolescents Who Have Been Sexually Abused: A Systematic Review.

Piquero, A. R., Farrington, D., Jennings, W. G., Tremblay, R., Piquero, A., & Welsh, B. (2008). Effects of Early Family/Parent Training Programs on Antisocial Behavior and Delinquency: A Systematic Review.

Piquero, A. R., Jennings, W., Farrington, D., & Jennings, W. G. (2010). Self-Control Interventions for Children Under Age 10 for Improving Self-Control and Delinquency and Problem Behaviors: A Systematic Review.

Polanin, J., & Espelage, D. (2015). Using a Meta-analytic Technique to Assess the Relationship between Treatment Intensity and Program Effects in a Cluster-Randomized Trial. Journal of Behavioral Education, 24(1), 133–151. doi:10.1007/s10864-014-9205-9

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Appendix D.

Data extraction document

Part B: AMSTAR

Part C: Extraction

Please extract the descriptive information from each study first. Information relating to each field needs to be marked with an ‘X’ if relevant to the review. If a field is relevant, please also specify the number of primary studies in the review this information pertains to. If the information in a particular field is not specified please specify this using the NS (not specified) option.

Descriptive information

Effects information

1. For meta-analyses with school-based interventions which have effects on violence overall please mark the appropriate column in the table below with an ‘X’.

2. For reviews where primary studies’ effects need to be individually extracted, please add the name of each primary study which needs to have their effects extracted first. Then, for each of these relevant primary studies mark the appropriate column in the table below with an ‘X’.

3. Were harmful effects reported or found?

Yes/No

4. Did the reviews include individual primary studies with effect sizes on relevant outcomes?

Yes/No

5. Specific type of outcome behavior considered in review (e.g. physical aggression): _________________________________________________________________________________

6. Specific type of intervention considered in review (e.g. social-emotional program): _________________________________________________________________________________