Non-Governmental Organising for Gender Equality in China – Joining a Global Emancipatory Epistemic Community

Abstract

This paper uses domestic violence activism as a case study through which to examine how non-governmental feminist activists organising in China have generated new knowledge through their engagement with international gender equality activism and global human rights norms. We examine how an epistemic community focused on domestic violence has developed in China. This community subscribes to international definitions of violence against women as a human rights issue. We show how activists' adoption of human rights norms takes place in several stages and within situated learning processes. We argue that by engaging in such processes activists have joined a global emancipatory epistemic community – one which they are currently extending to Chinese society.

Acknowledgements

This paper is a radically revised version of earlier papers. It first appeared under the title ‘NGO Activism – Changing Domestic Violence Knowledge’, a paper presented at the Danish Institute of Human Rights Workshop on Law Implementation in China in May 2004. Parts of it subsequently reappeared in a paper entitled ‘Popular Organizing to Combat Domestic Violence – Gender Analysis and Media Interaction’, presented at the International Conference on Feminism in China since the Women's Bell, held at Fudan University in Shanghai, in July 2004; a Chinese version of this paper has been published in Shehui Xingbie (Gender Studies). Some of the material discussed here was also presented in a paper entitled ‘Organizing for Gender Equality in China – a Process of Cultural and Political Change’ at the 36th World Congress of Sociology in Beijing in July 2004. We are most grateful to the audiences and to Michael Jacobsen, Mads Holst Jensen, Marina Svensson, and Hatla Thelle for their comments and suggestions. We also thank Erik Baark for special advice, Alexandra Kent for language revision, the NIAS–Linc librarians for their help, and the anonymous reviewers for valuable suggestions. Research for this article was made possible by a grant from the Danish Council for Development Research.

Notes

1. C. Bunch, ‘Tranforming Human Rights from a Feminist Perspective’, in J. Peters and A. Wolper (eds), Women's Rights – Human Rights. International Femnist Perspectives (New York and London: Routledge 1995), pp.11–17, and J. Joachim, ‘Shaping the Human Rights Agenda: The Case of Violence against Women’, in M. K. Meyer and E. Prügl (eds), Gender Politics in Global Governance (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield 1999), pp.142–60.

2. In this paper we use the term ‘non-governmental organisation’ (NGO) synonymously with the Chinese term ‘popular organisation’ (minjian zuzhi). We define ‘popular’, meaning ‘of the people’, as bottom-up organising initiated by activists themselves with activities also determined mainly from below by activists. For an elaboration on the definition and use of the term popular organising, see C. Milwertz, Beijing Women Organizing for Change – A New Wave of the Chinese Women's Movement (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 2002), pp.23–5. For a discussion of the definition of women's NGOs in China see N. Sausmikat, ‘NGO, Frauen und China’, Asien – Deutsche Zeitschrift für Politik, Wirtschaft und Kultur, No.80 (July 2001), pp.81–92. For a brief overview of the establishment of popular organising in Beijing see C. Milwertz, ‘Activism Against Domestic Violence in the People's Republic of China’, Violence Against Women, Vol.9, No.6 (June 2003), pp.630–55. We define popular/non-governmental organising as feminist in the sense that the activists and their organisations engage in political and cultural processes of critically examining, challenging and transforming taken-for-granted social discourse and practices. They do so from the position of protest against unjust gender relations.

3. N. Zhang, ‘Unintended Consequences of Hosting a Women's Conference: Beijing and Beyond’, in H. R. Christensen, B. Halsaa and A. Saarinen (eds), Crossing Borders: Re-mapping Women's Movements at the Turn of the 21st Century (Odense, Denmark: University Press of Southern Denmark 2004), pp.171–87. See P. Hsiung, M. Jaschok and C. Milwertz, with R. Chan (eds), Chinese Women Organizing – Cadres, Feminists, Muslims, Queers (Oxford: Berg 2001), and J. Howell, ‘Women's Organizations and Civil Society in China’, International Feminist Journal of Politics, Vol.5, No.2, (2003), pp.191–215 on the emergence and development of popular/non-governmental women's organising in China.

4. Zhang (note 3). See also J. Howell ‘Post-Beijing Reflections: Creating Ripples, but not Waves in China’, Women's Studies International Forum, Vol.20, No.2 (1997), pp.235–52.

5. L. A. West, ‘The United Nations Women's Conferences and Feminist Politics’, in Meyer and Prügl (note 1) pp.177–272 (p.178).

6. G. C. Spivak, ‘“Woman” as Theatre: United Nations Conference on Women, Beijing 1995’, Radical Philosphy, No.75 (January–February 1996), pp.2–4.

7. T. Barlow, ‘International Feminism of the Future’, Signs, Vol.25, No.4 (2000), pp.1099–105 (p.1100).

8. Ibid., p.1099.

9. N. Spakowski, ‘The Internationalization of China's Women's Studies’, Berliner China Hefte, Vol.20 (May 2001), pp.79–100.

10. J. Nie, ‘Feminist Bioethics and the Language of Human Rights in the Chinese Context’, in R. Tong, A. Donchin and S. Dodds (eds), Linking Visions: Feminist Bioethics, Human Rights and the Developing World (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield 2004), pp.73–88, p.78.

11. A. Heitlinger, ‘Cross-border Connections of Czech Women's Groups: The Role of Foreign Funding’, in Christensen et al. (note 3) pp.189–204.

12. M. Desai, ‘Transnational Solidarity. Women's Agency, Structural Adjustment and Globalization’, in N. A. Naples and M. Desai (eds), Women's Activism and Globalization (New York and London: Routledge 2002), pp.15–33.

13. The encounter between the new NGOs in China and this type of neo-liberal feminism is still more complex. The meetings between Hillary Rodham Clinton (then First Lady of the United States; described by Barlow (note 7) as exemplifying an ‘international U.S. feminism’ that presents no fundamental challenge to gender and global inequalities) with activists in Beijing and her visits to women's organisations were valued by activists. These meetings, as well as visits by United States Secretary of State Madelaine Albright, served to demonstrate to the Chinese government that high-level, non-Chinese politicians were awarding these women's organisations recognition as important social actors.

14. Zhang, p.182 (note 3).

15. M. Stivens, ‘Introduction: Gender Politics and the Reimagining of Human Rights in the Asia-Pacific’, in A. Hilsdon, M. Macintyre, V. Mackie and M. Stivens (eds), Human Rights and Gender Politics. Asia-Pacific Perspectives (London and New York: Routledge 2000), pp.1–36 (p.2).

16. P. Haas, ‘Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination’, International Organization, Vol.46, No.1 (1992), pp.1–35.

17. J. Chan-Tiberghien, ‘The Rise of a Women's Human Rights Epistemic Network in the 1990s: Global Norms, Gender Politics and Civil Society’, in E. P. Mendes and A. Lalonde-Roussy (eds), Bridging the Global Divide on Human Rights (Aldershot: Ashgate 2003), pp.195–219. Chan-Tiberghien's concept of epistemic community was developed within international relations constructivist theory by Peter Haas (note 16). An epistemic community is defined as ‘a network of professionals with recognised expertise and competence in a particular domain and authoritative claim to policy-relevant knowledge within that domain or issue-area’. S. Hsu, ‘International Linkage and China's Environmental Policies’, Issues and Studies, Vol.36, No.3 (May–June 2000), pp.61–102 provides an introduction to the concepts of ‘epistemic community’ and ‘epistemic learning’ in constructive theory in international relations. See also the TransLECS project, which studies the influence of Western legal and judicial co-operation on the development of the legal and judicial system in China, http://www.chinapolitik.de/trans/index.htm (accessed 24 September 2003).

18. Milwertz (note 2) and S. Wesoky, Chinese Feminism Faces Globalization (New York and London: Routledge 2002).

19. According to figures provided by each of the 22 Beijing organisations in our study, a total of 717 activists were active in these organisations up to the year 2000. Of these, 482 were reported to be active in 2000. This figure is approximate as the organisations cannot provide exact numbers. The 180 activists we interviewed were active in an average of three organisations. If we assume that all of 482 then active activists were active in an average of three organisations, then the total number of activists would be 160. We have not been able to include all activists and it is likely that the numbers of activists reported is somewhat low. According to the organisations' reporting, it appears that there may in fact have been some 500 activists who were active in 2000. However, these should also be broken down into those activists that are placed at the core of organising and others who have looser links to organising. See W. Bu and C. Milwertz, Beijing minjian funü zuzhi shizheng yanjiu. (Research Report on Popular Women's Organisations in Beijing), Unpublished report prepared for a workshop held in Beijing, November 2002.

20. Building on earlier work by Milwertz (Note 2), this study, which was conducted in 2000 and 2002, of 22 informal groups, registered organisations, and women's studies centres in Beijing includes interviews with 180 activists from these organisations and case studies of six organisations engaged in addressing domestic violence. Five of these organisations addressed domestic violence in the 1990s. One organisation was established in 2000 based on and bringing together experiences from 1990s' activism. We carried out interviews with core and/or leading activists in each of these organisations.

21. The Women's Research Institute was established in 1988. In 1996 it changed its name to the Maple Women's Psychological Counselling Centre.

22. C. Milwertz and W. Bu, ‘Creating and Disseminating Gender Knowledge in China’, in W. Burghoorn, K. Iwanaga, C. Milwertz and Q. Wang (eds), Gender Politics in Asia – Processes of Change and Empowerment (Copenhagen: NIAS Press forthcoming).

23. R. Eyerman and A. Jamison, Social Movements. A Cognitive Approach (Oxford: Polity Press 1991) and R. Eyerman and A. Jamison, Music and Social Movements (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998) in Milwertz 2003 (note 2).

24. J. Lave, ‘The Practice of Learning’, in S. Chaiklin and J. Lave (eds), Understanding Practice. Perspectives on Activity and Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1993), pp.3–32, and J. Lave and E. Wenger, Situated Learning. Legitimate Peripheral Participation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991).

25. C. Gilmartin, ‘Violence Against Women in Contemporary China’, in J. N. Lipman and S. Harrell (eds), Violence in China (New York: State University of New York Press 1991), pp.203–21.

26. Ibid. For results of investigations on the extent of domestic violence in Chinese society, see for example A. Guo, Jiating baoli (Domestic Violence) (Beijing: Zhongguo gongren chubanshe 2000), pp.109–21, and L. Zhang Lixi and M. Meng, Zhongguo jiating baoli yanjiu (Research on Domestic Violence in China) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe 2004).

27. Gilmartin, p.204 (note 25).

28. W. Bu, ‘Tantao Zhongguo Funübao ershi nian’ (Exploring Twenty Years of China Women's News), Speech at the twentieth anniversary of China Women's News, 12 September 2004, and W. Bu and X. Mi (C. Milwertz), ‘Minjian funü zuzhi yu dazhong meijie de hudong – Jiating baoli chengwei gonggong wenti de guocheng’ (Interaction Between Popular Women's Organisations and the Mass Media – The Process of Making Domestic Violence into a Public Issue), (Yazhou Chuanmei Yanjiu (Asian Communication and Media Studies) 2004), pp.61–71.

29. Y. Guo and Y. Cai, ‘Xiaochu jiating baoli – xinwen meijie ruhe jingzhong changming’ (Eradication of Domestic Violence – How the News Media Can Be Aware of the Issue), in Y. Guo and Y. Feng (eds), Shui shi bawang, shui shi ji (Who is the Conqueror and Who is the Concubine) (Beijing: China Women's Publishing House 2000), pp.168–74.

30. C. S. Tang, D. Wong and F. M. Cheung, ‘Social Construction of Women as Legitimate Victims of Violence in Chinese Societies’, Violence Against Women, Vol.8, No.8 (August 2002), pp.968–96, and X. Tong, ‘The Production and Reproduction of Unequal Gender Relations – An Analysis of Domestic Violence in China’, in L. Stearns (ed.), Chinese Women's Rights, Working Paper No.10 (Oslo: Institutt for Mennskerettigheter/Norwegian Institute of Human Rights 1999), pp.42–56.

31. M. Hester, ‘Domestic Violence in China’, in J. Radford, M. Friedberg and L. Harne (eds), Women, Violence and Strategies for Action: Feminist Research, Policy and Practice (Buckingham: Open University Press 2000), pp.149–66.

32. The Sex/Gender Education Forum has documented the Huang Jing case and the engagement of activists in supporting the case in the documentary ‘Garden in Heaven’ directed by X. Ai and J. Hu (2005).

33. United Nations, The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (New York: UN 1996).

34. Tong (note 30), and N. Xue Revision of the Chinese Marriage Law in 2001, Working paper (Oslo: Norwegian Institute of Human Rights 2002). See also Guo (note 26) p.5 for a short overview of the three degrees of bodily injuries in the law.

35. For a recent review of research on women and domestic violence see X. Wang, ‘Funü yu jiating baoli yanjiu zongshu’ (Review of Research on Women and Domestic Violence), in Quanguo fulian funü yanjiusuo (All-China Women's Federation Women's Studies Institute) (ed.), Zhongguo funü yanjiu nianjian 1996–2000 (Almanac of Chinese Women's Studies 1996–2000) (Beijing: Zhongguo funü chubanshe 2004), pp.56–65.

36. Interview 29 April 2001, transcript 2.4.

37. Milwertz (note 2), and X. Wang, ‘Domestic Violence in China’, in F. Cheung, M. Karlekar, A. De Dios, J. Vichit-Vadakan and L. R. Quisumbing (eds), Breaking the Silence: Violence Against Women in Asia. (Hong Kong: Equal Opportunities Commission 1999), pp.13–37.

38. Interview 3 May 2001, transcript 7.1.

39. Interview 28 April 2001, transcript 6.1.

40. The Women's Federation has since begun to register domestic violence cases. Out of a total of 128,900 complaints registered in 1995 by the All-China Women's Federation in Beijing about one-third related to domestic violence, see Guo (note 26) p.2.

41. Interview 8 May 2001.

42. Interview 3 May 2001, transcript 5.

43. X. Pi, ‘Jiating baoli – baipishu’ (Domistic Violence – Whitebook), Zhongguo funü (Chinese Women), No.12 (1991), pp.20–2. See also Y. Cai, Y. Feng and Y. Guo, ‘The Women's Media Watch Network’, in P. Hsiung, M. Jaschok and C. Milwertz with R. Chan (eds), Chinese Women Organizing – Cadres, Feminists, Muslims, Queers (Oxford: Berg 2001), pp.209–26 for an account of the difficult process of Pi Xiaoming's efforts to publish.

44. Interview 3 May 2001, transcript 3.1–3.3.

45. See also Tong (note 30).

46. Interview 5 November 2000, transcript 33.

47. Interview 2 May 2001, transcript 3.

48. Chan-Tiberghien (note 17).

49. Lave (note 24) p.6.

50. Lave and Wenger (note 24).

51. Interview 29 April 2001, transcript 7.3 and 70.1.

52. P. Lather, Getting Smart. Feminist Research and Pedagogy With/in the Postmodern (New York and London: Routledge 1991).

53. Ibid.

54. Interview 5 November 2000, transcript 2.2, 2.3 and 7.2.

55. A. Assiter, Enlightened Women (London: Routledge 1996).

56. Ibid. p.82.

57. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Rise of Nationalism (London: Verso 1982).

58. Eyerman and Jamison (note 23).

59. M. Mukhopadhyay and M. Appel, ‘Introduction: Gender Training and Social Transformation: An Agenda for Change’, in S. Cummings, H. van Dam and M. Valk (eds), Gender Training: The Source Book (Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute 1998), pp.13–25, p.16.

60. Bu and Milwertz (note 190).