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Abstract
The San of Botswana have had to cope with government policies, including ones aimed at assimilation and sedentarisation which had significant impacts on their subsistence and social security. In response, San and non-government organisations working with them attempted to draw on the international discourse on indigenous peoples' rights in their efforts to assert their rights. This paper examines the background and implications of a legal case brought by San and Bakgalagadi residents of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve against the government of Botswana for the relocation of people outside of the reserve and the cessation of services and water provision. While the government of Botswana argues that the most effective strategy to deal with rural, disadvantaged peoples is to establish settlements for them to provide services, questions are raised concerning the viability of this approach.
Acknowledgments
An earlier version of this paper was presented in a symposium entitled ‘Southern Africa and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: How Can International Mechanisms Work in Local Communities and Contexts?’ organised by Jennifer Hays and held at the American Anthropological Association (AAA) 107th annual meetings, San Francisco, California, 21 November 2008. We wish to thank Jennifer Hays, the editor of this special issue and two anonymous reviewers of an earlier draft. We would also like to express our appreciation to some of our anthropological and NGO colleagues and to Jumanda Gakelabone, Roy Sesana, Bihela Sekere, Alec Campbell, George Silberbauer, and the people of the Central Kalahari and the remote area settlements of Botswana for their ideas, assistance, and suggestions.
Notes
See also S. Saugestad, ‘Impact of International Mechanisms on Indigenous Rights in Botswana’, The International Journal of Human Rights 15, no. 1 (2011), 37–61; for further background on this legal case, see Maria Sapignoli, Indigenato e Strategie Politiche in Botswana. Il Caso dei Boscimani del Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Tesi di Laurea Specialistica in Etnologia dell'Africa (Bologna, Italia: Dipartimento di Antropologia Culturale ed Etnologia, Facoltà di Lettere e Filosfia, Università degli Studi di Bologna, 2007), 406.
For discussions of the issue of water as a human right, see S.C. McCaffrey, ‘A Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications’, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 5, no. 1 (1992): 1–24; Peter Gleick, ‘The Human Right to Water’, Water Policy 1, no. 5 (1999): 487–503; World Health Organization, The Right to Water (Geneva: WHO, 2003); Malcolm Langford, ‘The United Nations Concept of Water as a Human Right: A New Paradigm for an Old Problem?’, Water Resources Development 21, no. 2 (2005): 273–82; Maude Barlow, Blue Covenant: The Global Water Crisis and the Coming Battle for the Right to Water (New York: New Press, 2008).
For material on the debate over the concept of indigenous peoples, see Adam J. Kuper, ‘The Return of the Native’, Current Anthropology 44, no. 3 (2003): 389–411; Jason Kenrick and Jerome Lewis, ‘Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and the Politics of the Term Indigenous', Anthropology Today 20, no. 2 (2004): 4–9; Alan Barnard, ‘Kalahari Revisionism, Vienna, and the “Indigenous Peoples” Debate’, Social Anthropology 14, no. 1 (2006): 1–16; Amelia Cook and Jeremy Sarkin, ‘Who Is Indigenous? Indigenous Rights Globally, in Africa, and Among the San in Botswana’, Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 18 (2009): 93–130.
Adam J. Kuper, The Invention of Primitive Society (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 2005), 204.
Ibid., 205.
For an assessment of indigenous peoples and their situations, see Rodolfo Stavenhagen, ‘Indigenous Peoples’, in Encyclopedia of Human Rights, Volume 3, ed. David P. Forsythe (Oxford and New York: Oxford Press, 2009), 17–27; Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division of Social Policy and Development and Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, State of the World's Indigenous Peoples (New York: United Nations, 2009).
African Group of States, Draft Aide Memoire: United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People, 9 November 2006 (New York: United Nations, 2006). The only country in Africa that has ratified ILO Convention 169 is the Central African Republic in April 2010.
See African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, Report of the African Commission's Working Group on Indigenous Populations/Communities Mission to the Republic of Botswana, 15–23 June 2005 (Banjul, The Gambia: African Commission on Human and People's Rights of the African Union and Copenhagen; Denmark: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2008), 16.
Republic of Botswana, Statement by Ms. Mosadi K. Ramotshabi, Deputy Secretary for Defense, Justice, and Security to the Human Rights Council Under Item 3, Geneva, 28 September, 2009 (Geneva: Human Rights Council; Gaborone: Government of Botswana, 2009), 2.
African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, Advisory Opinion on the Universal Declaration on Human Rights Adopted by the African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights at its 41st Ordinary Session Held in May, 2007 in Acra, Ghana (Banjul, The Gambia: African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, African Union; and Copenhagen, Denmark: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2007). See also Lola Garcia-Alix and Robert K. Hitchcock, ‘Report from the Field: The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: Implementation and Implications’, Genocide Studies and Prevention 4, no. 1 (2009): 99–109.
Botswana has said this in a number of reports to United Nations agencies including the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. See Fourteenth Periodic Reports of States Parties Due in 2001: Botswana, U.N. Document CERD/C/407/add.1 (8 May 2002), http://www.unhchr.dh/tbs/doc/nsf (accessed August 21, 2009); see also Nicholas Olmstead, ‘Indigenous Rights in Botswana: Development, Democracy, and Dispossession’, Washington University Global Studies Law Review 3 (2004): 799–866, especially 834–7.
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, UN Doc A/RES/61/295, http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfi/en/declaration.html (accessed May 12, 2010).
See The International Forum on Globalization and Tebtebba Foundation, Implementing the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: Summary Report. Washington, D.C. October 27–28, 2008 (San Francisco, CA: International Forum on Globalization (IFG), 2008); Claire Charters and Rodolfo Stavenhagen, eds, Making the Declaration Work: The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2009).
See International Labour Office, Indigenous Peoples: Living and Working Conditions of Aboriginal Populations in Independent Countries, Studies and Reports, New Series, No. 35 (Geneva: International Labour Office, 1953); Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues, Indigenous Peoples: A Global Quest for Justice (London: Zed Press, 1987); Jeremie Gilbert, Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights under International Law: From Victims to Actors (Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 2006); Erica-Irene Daes, Indigenous Peoples: Keepers of Our Past, Custodians of Our Future (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2008); S. James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples and International Law (Austin, TX: Wolters Kluwer, 2009).
For a discussion of indigenous peoples and constitutional and legislative protections in African countries, see International Labor Organization and African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights, Overview Report of the Research Project by the International Labour Organization and African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Constitutional and Legislative Protection of the rights of Indigenous Peoples in 24 African Countries (Geneva, Switzerland: International Labor Organization, 2009).
For analyses of the impacts of resettlement, see Elizabeth Colson, The Social Consequences of Resettlement: The Impact of the Kariba Resettlement Experience Upon the Gwembe Tonga (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971); Thayer Scudder and Elizabeth Colson, ‘From Welfare to Development: A Conceptual Framework for the Analysis of Dislocated People’, in Involuntary Migration and Resettlement: The Problems and Responses of Dislocated People, ed. Art Hansen and Anthony Oliver-Smith (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982), 267–87; Thayer Scudder, The Future of Large Dams: Dealing with Social, Environmental, Institutional, and Political Costs (London: James and James Science Publishers, 2005); Mark Dowie, Conservation Refugees: The Hundred Year Conflict between Global Conservation and Native Peoples (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009); Anthony Oliver-Smith, ed., Development and Dispossession: The Crisis of Forced Displacement and Resettlement (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research, 2009).
Data based on field research and interviews carried out by Maria Sapignoli in East Hanahai in 2006, and Robert Hitchcock in East Hanahai, West Hanahai and other Ghanzi settlements in 1999, and in 2005 in Ghanzi and Ngamiland.
For a discussion of land issues in Africa, see Albert Barume, Indigenous Peoples Land Rights in Africa (Copenhagen, Denmark: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2009).
See Ute Dieckmann, ‘“The Vast White Place”: A History of the Etosha National Park in Namibia and the Hai//om’, Nomadic Peoples 5, no. 2 (2001): 125–53; Ute Dieckmann, ‘The Impact of Nature Conservation on San: A Case Study of Etosha National Park’, in San and the State, Contesting Land, Development, Identity, and Representation, ed. Thekla Hohmann (Koln: Rudiger Koppe Verlag, 2003), 37–86; Ute Dieckmann, Hai//om in the Etosha Region: A History of Colonial Settlement, Ethnicity, and Nature Conservation (Basel: Basler Afrika Bibliographien, 2007).
Roger Chennels and Aymone du Toit, ‘The Rights of Indigenous Peoples in South Africa’, in Indigenous Peoples' Rights in Southern Africa, ed. Robert K. Hitchcock and Diana Vinding (Copenhagen, Denmark: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2004), 98–113.
T.M. Chan, ‘The Richtersveld Challenge: South Africa Finally Adopts Aboriginal Title’, in Indigenous Peoples Rights in Southern Africa, ed. Robert K. Hitchcock and Diana Vinding (Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2004), 114–30, see especially 120.
See Ina Orth, ‘Identity as Dissociation: The Khwe's Struggle for Land in West Caprivi’, in San and the State, Contesting Land, Development, Identity, and Representation, ed. Thekla Hohmann (Koln: Rudiger Koppe Verlag, 2003), 121–59.
See Sidney L. Harring and William Odendaal, ‘Our Land They Took’: San Land Rights under Threat in Namibia (Windhoek: Legal Assistance Center, 2006); Willem Odendaal, San Communal Lands Contested: The Battle over N/a Jaqna Conservancy (Windhoek: Legal Assistance Center, 2006).
For an assessment of the CKGR case, see Maria Sapignoli, ‘Indigeneity and the Expert: Negotiating Identity in the Case of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve’, in Law and Anthropology, ed. Michael Freeman and David Napier (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 247–68. Background information on the Central Kalahari can be found in the following publications: Isaac Mazonde, ‘Battlefield of Wits: Interface between NGOs, Government, and Donors at Xade Development Site’, Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies 11, no. 1 (1997): 96–107; Sehunya Tshepo Mphinyane, ‘Power and Powerless, When Support Becomes Overbearing: The Case of Outsider Activism on the Resettlement Issue of the Basarwa of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve’, PULA, Botswana Journal of African Studies 16, no. 2 (2002): 76–85; Robert K. Hitchcock, ‘“We Are the First People”: Land, Natural Resources, and Identity in the Central Kalahari, Botswana’, Journal of Southern African Studies 28, no. 4 (2002): 797–824; Louiza Odysseos, Activism and Webs of Meaning: Rethinking the Relationship between ‘Local’ and ‘Global’ in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Center for Civil Society Research Report No. 23 (Durban, South African: Center for Civil Society, 2004); James Suzman, ‘Kalahari Conundrums: Relocation, Resistance, and International Support in the Central Kalahari, Botswana’, Before Farming: The Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers 2003–4 (2003–2004): 12–20; Julie J. Taylor, ‘Celebrating San Victory Too Soon? Reflections on the Outcome of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve Case’, Anthropology Today 23, no. 5 (2007): 3–5; Robert K. Hitchcock and Wayne A. Babchuk, ‘Kalahari San Foraging, Land Use and Territoriality: Implications for the Future’, Before Farming: The Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers no. 3 (2007): 169–81; C. Ng'ong'ola, ‘Sneaking Aboriginal Title into Botswana's Legal System through a Side Door: Review of Sesana and Others v. the Attorney General’, Botswana Law Journal 6 (2007): 103–23; Jacqueline Solway, ‘Human Rights and NGO “Wrongs”: Conflict Diamonds, Culture Wars, and the “Bushman Question”’, Africa 79, no. 3 (2009): 329–43; Danielle Resnick, ‘The Benefits of Frame Resonance Disputes for Transnational Movements: The Case of Botswana's Central Kalahari Game Reserve’, Social Movement Studies: Journal of Social, Cultural, and Political Protest 8, no. 1 (2009): 55–72.
George B. Silberbauer, Report to the Government of Bechuanaland on the Bushman Survey (Gaberones, Bechuanaland: Government Printer, 1965), 133.
The estimates of the numbers of different San groups and Bakgalagadi vary, depending on the source of the information. In the various studies G/ui and G//ana San represented between 48 per cent and 63 per cent of the overall CKGR population, while Bakgalagadi made up between 25 per cent and 43 per cent of the total. The figures are complicated in part because there were also other people in the CKGR, including Kua and Tsila and visitors from outside of the reserve. See Mark Murray, Present Wildlife Utilization in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Botswana: A Report on the C.K.G.R. Reconnaissance Survey (Gaborone: Department of Wildlife and National Parks, 1976); Paul Sheller, The People of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve: A Report on the Reconnaissance of the Reserve, July–September, 1976 (Gaborone, Botswana: Ministry of Local Government and Lands, Gaborone, Botswana, 1977); Mark English, Bernard Clauss, Wynand Swartz and Jan Xhari, ‘We, the People of the Short Blanket’: Development Proposals Based on the Needs and Aspirations of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (Ghanzi, Botswana: Remote Area Development Office, Ghanzi District Council, 1980); Helga Vierich, Interim Report on Basarwa and Related Poor Bakgalagadi in Kweneng District (Gaborone: Ministry of Local Government and Lands, 1978); Applied Research Unit, Report of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve: A Socio-Economic, Population, and Needs Assessment (Gaborone, Botswana: Ministry of Local Government, Lands, and Housing, 1996); Carlos Valiente-Noailles, The Kua: Life and Soul of the Central Kalahari Bushmen (Amsterdam: A.A. Balkema, 1993). It is interesting to note that the lawyer for the applicants in the Central Kalahari legal case argued that both the San and Bakgalagadi were indigenous to the CKGR, a perspective shared by many of the residents of the reserve. Of the nine witnesses who testified on behalf of the applicants, three were Bakgalagadi and four were San, three of whom were G//ana. There are debates about the length of time that the Bakgalagadi have been in the Central Kalahari, but oral histories and other kinds of evidence indicate long-term occupation. First People of the Kalahari representatives maintain that both the San and the Bakgalagadi are indigenous peoples. As a San witness in the case said, ‘We are one people, and we use the same practice’ (CKGR Court Case Transcripts, 5 November 2004, 47).
George B. Silberbauer, Hunter and Habitat in the Central Kalahari Desert (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 193; Jiro Tanaka, The San, Hunter-Gatherers of the Kalahari. A Study in Ecological Anthropology (Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, 1980), 81.
Government of Botswana, Report of the Central Kgalagadi Reserve Fact Finding Mission (Gaborone, Botswana: Government Printer, 1985).
Interview data from tourists visiting Botswana obtained in 1988, 1989 and 1990 by Robert Hitchcock.
Kazunobu Ikeya, personal communication, 2001. See also Kazunobu Ikeya, ‘Some Changes among the San Under the Influence of Relocation Plan in Botswana’, in Parks, Property, and Power: Managing Hunting Practice and Identity within State Policy Regimes, ed. David G. Anderson and Kazunobu Ikeya, Senri Ethnological Studies 59 (Osaka, Japan: National Museum of Ethnology, 2001), 183–98.
Tanaka, The San, Hunter-Gatherers of the Kalahari. A Study in Ecological Anthropology, 54.
Jiro Tanaka, personal communications, 1982, 1995.
James L. Workman, Heart of Dryness: How the Last Bushmen Can Help Us Endure the Coming Age of Permanent Drought (New York: Walker and Company, 2009), 133–4, 147; Joram /Useb, ‘A History of Water Access in the Southern Kalahari: San Perspectives on the Role of Modern Technology in Dispossession and Poverty’, in Water and Indigenous Peoples, ed. Rutgerd Boelens, Moe Chiba and Douglas Nakashima (Paris: United Nations Education and Scientific, Education, and Cultural Organization, UNESCO, 2006), 100–1; Robert K. Hitchcock and Axel Thoma, ‘Sip-wells: A Labor-intensive Method of Water Collection in the Kalahari’, Unpublished Manuscript, 2010.
Peter Gleick, ‘Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities: Meeting Basic Needs’, Water International 21, no. 1 (1996): 83–92.
See Isaac Schapera, Native Land Tenure in the Bechuanaland Protectorate (Alice, South Africa: Lovedale Press, 1943).
We wish to attribute this important point to Jackie Solway who noted the complicated ways in which Bakgalagadi in Dutlwe, Kweneng District, dealt with water issues.
See Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, Twenty Ninth Session, Geneva, 11–29 November 2002, Agenda Item 3. General Comment No. 15 (2002) The Right to Water (Articles 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights). ECOSOC E/C.12/2002/11, 20 January 2003.
World Health Organization, The Right to Water, 21.
General Comment No. 15 (2002) The Right to Water, 2.
For a discussion of subsistence rights, see Wesley T. Milner, Steven C. Poe and David Leblang, ‘Security Rights, Subsistence Rights, and Liberties: A Theoretical Survey of the Empirical Landscape’, Human Rights Quarterly 21, no. 2 (1999): 403–43.
The High Court of Botswana, Lobatse, in the matter between Matsipane Mosetlhanyene, first applicant, and Gakenyatsiwe Matsipana, second applicant, and further applicants v. Attorney General of Botswana respondent, 9 June 2010, MAHLB-0393-09, decided on 21 July 2010 by J. Walia, Judge.
D. Will, Opinion in Re: Common-Law Leases of Tribal Land, Ministry of Local Government and Lands File 2/1/1 (Gaborone: Government of Botswana, 1978).
Attorney General M.D. Mokama, personal communication to Robert Hitchcock, 1978.
Statement by the Minister of Local Government and Lands, Government of Botswana, 5 November 1978.
See Robert K. Hitchcock and Rosinah Rose B. Masilo, Subsistence Hunting and Resource Rights in Botswana (Gaborone, Botswana: Department of Wildlife and National Parks, 1995).
Tanaka, The San, Hunter-Gatherers of the Kalahari. A Study in Ecological Anthropology, 66–9, Tables 10 and 11.
George B. Silberbauer, ‘Hunter/Gatherers of the Central Kalahari’, in Omnivorous Primates: Gathering and Hunting in Human Evolution, ed. Robert S.O. Harding and Geza Teleki (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981): 44–498. See especially 483–7 and Table 12.3.
Ibid., 487, Figure 12.2.
This is the position of the San organisation First People of the Kalahari, for example.
See, for example, arguments made in a report by two ecologists who spent over seven years in the Central Kalahari: Mark Owens and Delia Owens, Preliminary Final Report on the Central Kalahari Predator Research Project (report to the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Gaborone, Botswana, 1981), especially p. 29.
For further discussions of these issues, see Sidsel Saugestad, The Inconvenient Indigenous: Remote Area Development in Botswana, Donor Assistance, and the First People of the Kalahari (Uppsala: Nordic African Institute, 2001); Sidsel Saugestad, ‘“Improving their Lives”: State Policies and San Resistance in Botswana’, Before Farming: The Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers 2005, no. 4 (2005): 1–11; Saugedstad, 37–61.
See http://www.gov.bw/index.php/ (accessed July 15, 2009).
See Alice Mogwe, Who Was (T)here First? An Assessment of the Human Rights Situation of Basarwa in Selected Communities in the Gantsi District, Botswana (Gaborone, Botswana: Botswana Christian Council, 1992).
CKGR Court Case Transcripts, 29–30 July 2004.
See Carolyn Stevens, Clive Nettleton, John Porter, Ruth Willis and Stephanie Clark, ‘Indigenous Peoples’ Health: Why Are They behind Everyone, Everywhere?', The Lancet 366 (2005): 10–13.
Seretse Khama Ian Khama, Empowering the Nation through Democracy, Development, Dignity, and Discipline. State of the National Address to the Opening of the Fifth Session of the Ninth Parliament, Gaborone, 3 November. 2008 (Gaborone: Republic of Botswana, 2008).
United Nations Human Rights Council, Twelfth Session, Agenda Item 3. Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Including the Right to Development. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people, James Anaya, Addendum: The Situation of Indigenous Peoples in Botswana (Geneva: Human Rights Council, A/HRC/13, 22 February 2010).
Republic of Botswana, Revised Remote Area Development Programme Policy of 2009 (Gaborone: Republic of Botswana, 2009), 1.
James Anaya, The Situation of Indigenous Peoples in Botswana: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People (Geneva: Human Rights Council, A/HRC/13, 22 February 2010), 20.
Ibid., 30.
Ibid., 37.
Ibid., 30.
See Republic of Botswana, Wildlife Conservation Policy (Gaborone, Botswana: Government Printer, 1986); Republic of Botswana, Community-Based Natural Resources Management Policy (Gaborone, Botswana: Government Printer, 2008).
CKGR Court Case Transcripts, 5 November 2004, 45.
Republic of Botswana, Remarks by Mr. Phologo J. Gaumaku, Charge D'Affaires, A.E. Permanent Mission of the Republic of Botswana to the United Nations at the Ninth Session of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues on the Issue of Boarding Schools and Indigenous People (New York: United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues; Gaborone: Government of Botswana, 2010).
High Court of Botswana, Legal Case No. MISCA 52/2002 in the Matter Between Roy Sesana, First Applicant, Keiwa Setlhobogwa and 241 others, Second and Further Applicants, and the Attorney General (in His Capacity as the Recognized Agent of the Government of the Republic of Botswana (Lobatse, Botswana: High Court of Botswana, 2002). For the response of the government's Attorney General to the case after the results were announced in December 2006, see Athalia Molokomme, Attorney General's Statement on the Outcome of the Case of Roy Seasana and Others Vs the Attorney General. December 14th, 2006 (Gaborone, Botswana: Attorney General's Chambers, Government of Botswana, 2006).
As the World Health Organization, The Human Right to Water, 27 points out, ‘When access to fresh water is compromised, often indigenous rights to self-determination and occupation are infringed upon, as are their water reliant institutions.’
See also Saugestad this volume, and the discussions and information provided on the website of Survival International http://www.survival-international.org and the website http://www.iwant2gohome (accessed 12 November 2010).
For a discussion of the ways in which minorities are treated in Botswana, including issues relating to Land Boards and how they deal with non-Tswana groups, see Lydia Nyati-Ramahobo, Minority Tribes in Botswana: The Politics of Recognition (London: Minority Rights Group, 2009).
This is the case in spite of the assertions by government officials and by the Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis (BIDPA) in its Report of the Review of the Remote Area Development Programme (Gaborone: Ministry of Local Government, 2003).
Information from former Central Kalahari residents in New Xade, Kaudwane, and Xeri obtained by non-government organisation field workers.
Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) are rather unspectacular looking tiny insects that are used to produce a red carminic dye used for food colouring, lipsticks, and textile colouring agents. In the late 1980s a missionary in New Xanagas in Ghanzi District had experimented with cochineal without being able to go into commercial production. In 1993–1994 a cochineal project was introduced by the Kuru Family of Organizations in Ghanzi District. For some assessments of CBNRM programmes in Botswana, see National Forum on Community Based Natural Resources Management in Botswana, ‘Back to the Future’: Proceedings of the Third National CBNRM Conference, 25th and 26th of November, 2003 Gaborone, Botswana and CBNRM Status Report 2003 (Gaborone, Botswana: IUCN Botswana and CBNRM Support Program, 2004); P. Blaikie, ‘Is Small Really Beautiful? Community-based Natural Resource Management in Malawi and Botswana’, World Development 34, no. 11 (2006): 1942–57; B. Buzwani, T. Setlhogile, J. Arntzen and F. Potts, Best Practices in Botswana for the Management of Natural Resources by Communities, Occasional Paper No. 17 (Gaborone, Botswana: IUCN/SNV (Netherlands Development Organization) Community Based Natural Resources Management Program, 2007); Amy R. Poteete, ‘Defining Political Community and Rights to Natural Resources in Botswana’, Development and Change 40, no. 2 (2009): 281–305.
See Michael Bollig, Robert K. Hitchcock, Cordelia Nduku and Jan Reynders, At the Crossroads: The Future of a Development Initiative. Evaluation of KDT, Kuru Development Trust, Ghanzi and Ngamiland Districts of Botswana (The Hague, The Netherlands: Hivos, 2000).
Elizabeth A. Wily, Official Policy towards San (Bushmen) Hunter–gatherers in Modern Botswana: 1966–1978 (Gaborone, Botswana: National Institute of Development and Cultural Research, 1979); Elizabeth A. Wily, ‘A Strategy of Self–determination for the Kalahari San (The Botswana Government's Programme of Action in the Ghanzi Farms)’, Development and Change 13, no. 2 (1982): 291–308.
For a useful discussion of the limitations of the Remote Area Development Program and the settlement approach, see Keitseope Nthomang, ‘Relentless Colonialism: The Case of the Remote Area Development Programme (RADP) and the Basarwa in Botswana’, Journal of Modern African Studies 42, no. 3 (2004): 405–35. Nthomang sees the RADP as a top-down strategy by government which lacks grassroots support and is, as he puts it, ‘a vehicle of colonization’ (p. 421).
For a discussion of some of the impacts of resettlement in New Xade, including out-migration from the settlement, see Junko Maruyama, ‘The Impact of Resettlement on Livelihood and Social Relationships among the Central Kalahari San’, African Study Monographs 14, no. 4 (2003): 223–45; see also A. Takada, ‘Social Changes among the Central Kalahari San: The Analysis of Population Dynamics, Subsistence Activities, and Child Weight’, Afurika Kenkyu 60 (2002): 85–103.
Kazunobu Ikeya, personal communication to Robert Hitchcock, 2004.
Maruyama, ‘The Impact of Resettlement on Livelihood and Social Relationships among the Central Kalahari San’, 229, Figure 5.
Ibid., 229–30.
Ibid., 230.
Ibid., 229–30.
These conclusions are based on statements made by settlement residents in 2005 and 2006.
In the past decade, a total of over 120 people have been arrested in and around the Central Kalahari for violating Botswana fauna conservation laws; some of these individuals were in the possession of valid hunting licenses.
See the CKGR Court Case transcripts; Articles 11, 19, 28, 29, and 32 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples deal with the rights of indigenous peoples to reparations and restitution for failure of states to take into consideration ‘free, prior, and informed consent’.