Language rights and the San in Namibia: a fragile and ambiguous but necessary proposition

Abstract

In many countries, discriminatory language policies from the colonial era continued after independence, favouring languages that the majority of citizens do not speak as the first language in their homes. Policies, legislation and their implementation often discriminate against indigenous languages in a number of ways. The prevailing situation in the world today is that certain languages are given official status and recognition while the majority of languages, and, in particular, indigenous languages are denied legal recognition. This imbalance weakens indigenous languages and contributes to views that portray indigenous languages as inferior and give room for discriminatory and corrupt practices that are difficult to combat through legal or political means.

Notes

C.B. Paulston, ‘Language Policies and Rights’, Annual Review of Anthropology 26(1997): 73–85.

T. Ricento, ‘Historical and Theoretical Perspectives in Language Policy and Planning’, Journal of Sociolinguistics 4 (2000): 196–213; J. Tollefson, Planning Language, Planning Inequality: Language Policy in the Community (New York: Longman, 1991); M. Kontra, R. Phillipson, T. Skutnabb-Kangas and T. Várady, eds, Language: A Right and a Resource: Approaching Linguistic Human Rights (Budapest: Central European University Press, 1999).

Paulston, ‘Language Policies and Rights’; N.H. Hornberger, ‘Frameworks and Models in Language Policy and Planning’, in An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method, ed. T. Ricento (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006): 24–41. The distinctions between language policy and language planning deserve more treatment outside of the context of this article. Hornberger (2006) and Ricento, ‘Historical and Theoretical Perspectives in Language Policy and Planning’, identify the early days of LPP through conference, projects and publications by a handful of scholars who focused on language problems at national levels and typically in developing or new nations from the mid to late 1960s over the course of a decade.

Hornberger, 2006; C.B. Paulston and K. Heidemann. ‘Language Policies and the Education of Linguistic Minorities’, in An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method, ed. T. Ricento (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2000).

Hornberger, 2006, 28.

T. Skutnabb-Kangas and R. Phillipson, eds, Linguistic Human Rights: Overcoming Linguistic Discrimination (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994).

A. De Swaan, ‘Endangered Languages, Sociolinguistics, and Linguistic Sentimentalism’, European Review 12, no. 4 (2004): 567–80.

R. Phillipson, ‘Language Policy and Linguistic Imperialism’, in An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method, ed. T. Ricento (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2000): 346–61; R. Phillipson, ‘Integrative Comment: Living with Vision and Commitment’, in Rights to Language Equity, Power, and Education: Celebrating the 60th Birthday of Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, ed. R. Phillipson (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000): 273–91.

B. Spolsky, Language Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

F. de Varennes, ‘To Speak or Not To Speak: The Rights of Persons Belonging to Linguistic Minorities’ (working paper, United Nations Subcommittee on the Rights of Minorities, 1997).

Paulston, ‘Language Policies and Rights’.

Spolsky, Language Policy.

S. Vilfan, ed., Ethnic Groups and Language Rights (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1993), 75.

A.H. Leibowitz, Federal Recognition of the Rights of Minority Language Groups (Rosslyn, VA: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, 1982).

T.G. Wiley, ‘Accessing Language Rights in Education: A Brief History of the U.S. Context’, in Language Policies in Education: Critical Issues, ed. J. Tollefson (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002); emphasis in original.

United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.

T. Skutnabb-Kangas, ‘Language Policy and Linguistic Human Rights’, in An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method, ed. T. Ricento (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2000).

Skutnabb-Kangas (2000).

Kontra et al., Language: A Right and a Resource: Approaching Linguistic Human Rights, 5–6.

T. Skutnabb-Kangas and R. Phillipson, ‘Linguistic Human Rights, Past and Present', in Linguistic Human Rights: Overcoming Linguistic Discrimination, eds. T. Skutnabb-Kangas and R. Phillipson (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994): 71–110.

K. Watson, ‘Language, Education, and Ethnicity: Whose Rights Will Prevail in an Age of Globalization?’, International Journal of Educational Development 27 (2007): 252–65; K. Watson, ‘Language, Power, Development, and Geopolitical Changes: Conflicting Pressures Facing Plurlingual Societies’, Compare 29, no. 1 (1999): 5–22.

In fact, as some suggest, the use of the term minority in some language contexts can be misleading. Minority language speakers in a Namibian and South African context (i.e. English, German or Afrikaners) may be the smallest in number but may conversely be a dominant group economically and educationally.

C. Maletsky, ‘Herero Farmers Invade San Area’, The Namibian, http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2009/may/herero-farmers-invade-san-area/ (accessed May 6, 2009); R. Munamava, ‘San Complain of Discrimination’, New Era (2001): 1–2; J. Suzman, An Introduction to the Regional Assessment of the Status of the San in Southern Africa (Windhoek: Legal Assistance Centre, 2001); J. Suzman, An Assessment of the Status of the San in Namibia (Windhoek: Legal Assistance Centre, 2001).

For sake of terminology, San, Basarwa and Bushman are used interchangeably in southern African contexts, depending upon local usage. Basarwa is the commonly used term in Botswana; although San is becoming increasingly common.

See also S. Saugestad, ‘Impact of International Mechanisms on Indigenous Rights in Botswana’, The International Journal of Human Rights 15, no.1 (2011), this issue.

Ministry of Basic Education, Sport, and Culture, National Policy Options for Educationally Marginalised Children (Windhoek: Ministry of Basic Education, Sport, and Culture, 2001); W. Le Roux, Torn Apart: San Children as Change Agents in a Process of Acculturation (Shakawe, Botswana; Windhoek, Namibia: Kuru Development Trust/Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa, 1999).

U. Kaan, Where the Sand is the Book: Education for Everyone in the Nyae Nyae Area. (Windhoek, Namibia: Nyae Development Foundation in Namibia (NNDFN) and the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA), 1991); U. Kaan, R. Hitchcock and N. Mbere, Let Them Talk: A Review of the Accelerated Remote Area Development Programme (Gaborone/Oslo: Ministry of Local Government and Lands/Norwegian Agency for Development and Co-operation, 1990); A. Siegrűhn and J. Hays, ‘Implementation Plan for Pilot Projects for the Khoe and San Languages in Schools in the Northern Cape Province’ (Submitted to the Northern Cape Education Department, South Africa, 2001) J.Hays, ‘Education Rights for Indigenous Communities in Botswana and Namibia’, The International Journal of Human Rights 15, no.1 (2011), this issue.

J. Hays, ‘“We Should Learn as We Go Ahead”: Finding the Way Forward for the Nyae Nyae Village Schools Project’, Perspectives in Education 20, no. 1 (2002): 123–39. R.K. Hitchcock, M. Sapignoli and W. A. Babchuk, ‘What about Our Rights? Settlements, Subsistence and Livelihood Security among Central Kalahari San and Bakgalagadi’, The International Journal of Human Rights 15 no.1 (2011), this issue.

J. Sithole, ‘Indigenous Languages Endangered’, The Namibian, April 20, 2007, p. 5.

L. Makelela, ‘“We Speak Eleven Tongues”: Reconstructing Multilingualism in South Africa’, in Languages of Instruction for African Emancipation: Focus on Postcolonial Contexts and Considerations, ed. B. Brock-Utne and R. Hopson (Cape Town/Dar es Salaam: The Centre for Advanced Studies of African Society/Mkuki na Nyota, 2005), 147–74.

K.K. Prah, ‘Languages of Instruction for Education, Development and African Emancipation’, in Languages of Instruction for African Emancipation: Focus on Postcolonial Contexts and Considerations, ed. B. Brock-Utne and R. Hopson (Cape Town/Dar es Salaam: The Centre for Advanced Studies of African Society/Mkuki na Nyota, 2005), 1–22.

R. Chamberlain, A. Diallo and E.J. John, Toward a Language Policy for Namibia – English as the Official Language: Perspectives and Strategies (Lusaka: United Nations Institute for Namibia, 1981).

E.G. Bokamba, ‘The Politics of Language Planning in Africa: Critical Choices for the 21st Century’, in Discrimination through Language in Africa: Perspective from the Namibian Experience, ed. M. Pütz (NY: Mouton De Gruyter, 1995): 11–28; M. Pütz, ed. Discrimination through Language in Africa: Perspective from the Namibian Experience (NY: Mouton De Gruyter, 1995).

Ministry of Basic Education, Sport, and Culture, ‘The Language Policy for Schools in Namibia’, discussion document (Okhandia, Namibia: Ministry of Basic Education, Sport, and Culture, 2003).

Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and Culture, ‘The Language policy for Schools in Namibia’, discussion document (Okahandja, Namibia: Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and Culture, 2003). Ministry of Education and Culture, ‘The Language Policy for Schools, 1992–1996 and Beyond’ (Windhoek, Namibia) (Ministry of Education and Culture, 1992).

Ministry of Basic Education, Sport, and Culture, ‘The Language Policy for Schools in Namibia, 3’ (OKhandja, Namibia).

Ministry of Education/National Institute for Educational Development, Report on the Study to Investigate a Two Language Policy (Okhandia, Namibia: Ministry of Education/National Institute for Educational Development, 2007).

Ministry of Education, ‘The National Curriculum for Basic Education’ (Okhandja/Namibia: National Institute for Educational Development/Ministry of Education, 2009). Since the 2007 MPCC study, the curriculum has become officially effective.

Other than the date of committee establishment, the members of the committee and the 11 terms of reference, the reason and background for the study is seemingly unknown. Of the 11 terms of reference, they vary from determining: (1) The resources available to introduce multilingualism in most public schools, to (5). The costs in real terms of offering two languages/multilingualism in schools, or (10). The resources available to introduce English as a first language in all public schools.

Ministry of Education/National Institute for Educational Development, Report on the Study to Investigate a Two Language Policy, 2.

Page 14; Though pronouncements about indigenous language use understood as necessary, former Permanent Secretary of Ministry of Education and Culture I.V. Ankama as quoted early in the first few years after independence as making the important link between education, mother tongue use, and nation building.

R. Phillipson and T. Skutnabb-Kangas, ‘Language Rights in Postcolonial Africa’, in Linguistic Human Rights: Overcoming Linguistic Discrimination, ed. T. Skutnabb-Kangas and R. Phillipson (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995), 338.

Key articles in the Declaration that relate to or mention languages include 13, 14, and 16.

M. Diki-Kidiri and H. Alidou, ‘National Policies: The Role of Vehicular Cross-border Languages, the Place of Less Disseminated Languages in Africa. General Synthesis of the Five Regional Conferences’ Reports', Addis-Ababa, 5–7 February 2009; ACALAN, ‘Action Plan of the Bamako Commitment on Universal Multilingualism’, Bamako, 19–21 January 2009.

L. Nyati-Ramahobo, ‘Indigenous Languages in Botswana’, International Expert Group Meeting on Indigenous Languages, New York, 8–10 January 2008.

See Saugestad, and Hays, this issue.

The Ju|'hoansi are a specific language group residing along the eastern side of Namibia and across the border in Botswana. The Ju|'hoan Transcription Group, supported by the Kalahari Peoples Fund (KPF), is made up of former teachers who can read and write in their mother tongue.

J. Hays, R. Hopson and W. 1-R, ‘Evaluation of the San Education project in Tsumkuse’ (Elvenum, Norway: Namibian Association of Norway, 2010).

Viall, personal communication, 29 April 2009; Moller, personal communication, 6 July 2009.

W.F. Fisher, ‘Doing Good? The Politics and Antipolitics of NGO Practices’, Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997): 439–64.