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Abstract
When the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine was widely adopted by the international community at the 2005 World Summit, it became the first such principle to advocate for the enforcement of international law and provide for both punishment and prevention of international human rights violations. While this created a shift away from the once sacrosanct norm of national sovereignty, another equally important change was occurring. The digital age has redefined the nature and scope of civic engagement. With increased communication and availability of information, citizenship has transcended national borders and expanded to engagement at the local, national, and international level. These new levels of engagement also change the nature of democracy through the inclusion of issues and opinions beyond the domestic constituency. Additionally, the methods of engagement have expanded through the use of social media and other digital platforms. The combination of the R2P doctrine and cosmopolitan civic engagement has created a vital nexus which gives human rights and international law a new form of accountability and enforcement. This article will explore the co-development of these norms and the implications for conflict prevention and resolution as well as democracy.
Notes on contributor
David William Gethings is a PhD student in International Conflict Management at Kennesaw State University in Georgia. He received both a MA in Comparative Politics and a Graduate Certificate in Peacebuilding and Human Rights from American University in Washington, DC. His research focuses primarily on political philosophy and human rights and the individual, with a specialization on the Responsibility to Protect. His areas of interest also include political legitimacy, global ethics, the social market economy, and the impacts of the digital age.
Notes
1 Halil Rahman Basaran, ‘Responsibility to Protect: An Explanation’, Houston Journal of International Law 36, no. 3 (2014): 581–624, esp. 583.
2 James H. Kettner, The Development of American Citizenship, 1608–1870 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1978), esp. 208.
3 For a detailed account of the historical development of humanitarian intervention, see Gary Bass' Freedom's Battle: The Origin of Humanitarian Intervention (2008).
4 International Commission on Intervention and Satte Sovereignty (ICISS), and International Development Research Centre. The Responsibility to Protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, Gareth J. Evans and Mohamed Sahnoun, eds. (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001), esp. 8.
5 Immanuel Kant, Toward perpetual peace and other writings on politics, peace, and history (New Haven: Yale University Press, [1784] 2006), esp. 6.
6 Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 38.
7 Louise Conn Fleming, ‘Civic participation: A curriculum for democracy’, American Secondary Education, 40, no. 1 (2011): 39–50; Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, eds., Civic Culture Revisited (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1989); John Gaventa and Gregory Barrett, ‘Mapping the Outcomes of Citizen Engagement’, World Development 40, no.12 (2012): 2399–2410.
8 Cliff Zukin, Scott Keeter, Krista Andolina, and Michael X. Delli Carpini, A new engagement? Political participation, civic life, and the changing American citizen (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2006), 51.
9 Sarah K. Bruch, Myra Marx Ferree, and Joe Soss, ‘From Policy to Polity: Democracy, Paternalism, and the Incorporation of Disadvantaged Citizens’, American Sociological Review, 75, no. 2 (2010): 205–226; Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: NY: Simon & Schuster, 2000); and others.
10 Oxford English Dictionary: Citizen: an inhabitant of a city or (often) of a town; especially one possessing civic rights and privileges, a burgess or freeman of a city; Citizenship: the position or status of being a citizen, with its rights and privileges.
11 Jeremy Waldron, Dignity, Rank, and Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).
12 Amitai Etzioni, ‘Too Many Rights, Too Few Responsibilities’, in Toward a Global Civil Society, Michael Walzer, ed. (Providence, RI: Berghahn Books, 1996), 99–106, esp. 101.
13 Richard Dagger, Civic Virtues: Rights, Citizenship, and Republican Liberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), esp. 21.
14 Seyla Benhabib, Another Cosmopolitanism (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), esp. 45.
15 Immanuel Kant, Toward Perpetual Peace and Other Writings on Politics, Peace, and History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, [1784] 2006), 84, 8:360.
16 Anthony Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2006); Bhikhu Parekh, ‘Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship’, Review of International Studies 29, no. 1 (2003): 3–17; Kim Rubenstein, ‘Citizenship in an Age of Globalisation: The Cosmopolitan citizen?’, Law in Context 25, no. 1 (2007): 88–111; Kok-Chor Tan, ‘Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism’, in The Cosmopolitan Reader, Garrett Wallace Brown and David Held, eds. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2012), 176–190.
17 Richard Falk, ‘The Decline of Citizenship in an Era of Globalization’, Citizenship Studies 4, no. 1 (2000): 5–17.
18 Derek Heater, Citizenship: The Civic Ideal in World History, Politics, and Education (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004).
19 Christopher Pallas, ‘Identity, Individualism, and Activism Beyond the State: Examining the Impacts of Global Citizenship’, Global Society 26, no. 2 (2012): 169–189.
20 Brett Bowden, ‘The Perils of Global Citizenship’, Citizenship Studies 7, no. 3 (2003): 349–362.
21 Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, and Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 2010), 4–5.
22 Appiah, Cosmopolitanism; Falk, ‘The Decline of Citizenship’; Heater, Citizenship; Pallas, ‘Identity, Individualism, and Activism Beyond the State’.
23 Kenneth Baynes, ‘Communitarian and cosmopolitan challenges to Kant's conception of world peace’, in Perpetual peace: Essays on Kant's cosmopolitan ideal, James Bohman and Matthias Lutz-Bachmann, eds. (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1997), 219–234; Janna Thompson, ‘Community identity and world citizenship’, in Re-imagining political community, Daniele Archibugi, David Held, and Martin Kohler, eds. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), 179–197; Jurgen Habermas, ‘A political constitution for the pluralist world society?’ in The cosmopolitanism reader, 267–288; David Held, ‘Principles of a cosmopolitan order’, in The Cosmopolitanism Reader, 229–247.
24 Kok-Chor Tan, Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism, esp. 182.
25 Ibid., 159.
26 Morris Janowitz, The reconstruction of patriotism: Education for civic consciousness (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1983), ix.
27 Fleming, ‘Civic Participation’.
28 Jeremy Waldron, Dignity, Rank, and Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), esp. 167.
29 Dagger, Civic Virtues, esp. 42.
30 Iris Marion Young, Responsibility for justice. Oxford Political Philosophy. (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 137.
31 Martha C. Nussbaum, ‘Patriotism and cosmopolitanism’, in The Cosmopolitanism Reader, 155–162.
32 Benhabib. Another Cosmopolitanism, esp. 20.
33 Parekh, ‘Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship’, esp. 6.
34 Habermas, ‘A political constitution for the pluralist world society?’
35 Held, ‘Principles of a cosmopolitan order’.
36 Lea L. Ypi, ‘Statist cosmopolitanism’, Journal of Political Philosophy 16, no. 1 (2008): 48–71.
37 Emery Reves, A Democratic Manifesto (New York: Random House, 1942), 11.
38 A term coined by Peter J. Spiro (‘The New Sovereigntists: American Exceptionalism and Its False Prophets’, Foreign Affairs, 79, no. 6 [2000]: 9–15) used by Goodhart and Taninchev (‘The New Sovereigntist Challenge for Global Governance: Democracy Without Sovereignty’ [2011]) to describe ‘a group of American scholars, intellectuals, and policymakers who view the emerging international legal order and system of global governance with consternation’ (p. 1047).
39 Michael Goodhart and Stacy Bondanella Taninchev, ‘The New Sovereigntist Challenge for Global Governance: Democracy Without sovereignty’, International Studies Quarterly 55, no. 4 (2011): 1047–1068, esp. 1047.
40 Cited in Samantha Power, A Problem From Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Perennial, 2003), esp. 177.
41 Alan M. Jacobs, Governing for the Long Term: Democracy and the Politics of Investment (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), esp. 7.
42 Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), esp. vx.
43 Gérard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).
44 Jan Eliasson, Remarks delivered at the informal interactive dialogue on ‘Fulfilling our collective responsibility: International assistance and the responsibility to protect’, 8 September 2014, available at: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2014/dsgsm793.doc.htm (accessed 15 June 2015).
45 Oona A. Hathaway, Julia Brower, Ryan Liss, Tina Thomas, and Jacob Victor, ‘Consent-based Humanitarian Intervention: Giving Sovereign Responsibility Back to the Sovereign’, Cornell International Law Journal 46, no. 3 (2013): 499–568, esp. 538.
46 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) and International development Research Centre, The Responsibility to Protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, Gareth J. Evans and Mohamed Sahnoun eds. (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001), esp. 8.
47 Barry R. Weingast, ‘The Political Foundations of Democracy and the Rule of Law’ The American Political Science Review 91, no. 2 (1997): 245–263, esp. 261.
48 Jan Aart Scholte, ‘Civil Society and Democracy in Global Governance’, Global Governance 8, no. 3 (2002): 281–304, esp. 285.
49 Carole Pateman, ‘Participation and Democratic Theory,’ in The Democracy Sourcebook, José Antônio Cheibub, Ian Shapiro, and Robert Alan Dahl eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), 40–47, esp. 41.
50 Etzioni, ‘Too Many Rights, Too Few Responsibilities’; Dagger, Civic Virtues.
51 National Constitution Center, Doris Kearns Goodwin: ‘Team of Rivals’. Audio. We the People Podcasts, 2005.
52 Woodrow Wilson ‘Peace Without Victory’. (Speech, Washington, DC, 22 January 1917), available at: http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/peacewithoutvictory.htm (accessed 21 May 2015).
53 Eric Schmidt, and Jared Cohen. The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of People, Nations and Business (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2013), esp. 4.
54 Cristian Maciel, Licínio Roque, and Ana Cristina Bicharra Garcia, ‘Interaction and Communication Resources in Collaborative E-democratic Environments: The Democratic Citizenship Community’, Information Polity 15, no. 1–2 (2010): 73–88, esp. 75.
55 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) and International Development Research Centre, The Responsibility to Protect, esp. 6–7.
56 Romeo Dallaire, Speech delivered to the Senate. (Speech, Canada, 17 June 2014), available at: http://www.macleans.ca/politics/for-the-record-romeo-dallaires-last-speech-in-the-senate/ (accessed 1 June 2015).
57 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) and International Development Research Centre, The Responsibility to Protect, esp. 5.