How to think about the instrumental politics of mass rape: a critical appraisal of feminist approaches

ABSTRACT

Mass rape and other forms of sexual violence in ethnic conflict, as their incidence in Bosnian and Kosovo wars in former Yugoslavia showed in the 1990s, cannot be relativised along some strategy of either ‘victimization’ or ‘everyone is guilty’ within an antiquated framework of ethnic-religious hatred. In this case as in others, the local notions of honour and blood cannot be taken uncritically to be binding cultural traits that ought to determine social behaviour. Incidentally, they cannot either account for a structured ideology of ‘men’s war against women’, or for a postmodern feminist ideology of gender and the moral panic of a ‘patriarchal dream-order’ restored. In this article, I offer a critical appraisal of the stereotyped and relativising accounts of feminist and human rights scholars, a critique very much needed for an anthropological approach attentive to cultural ideology and activism. To understand the effectiveness of mass rape in a military strategy of ethnic cleansing, I suggest local cultural concepts and moral relativist ideas are not culturally given, but instrumental resources deliberately mobilised.

KEYWORDS:

• Sexual violence
• wartime rape
• ethnic cleansing
• former Yugoslavia
• Bosnia
• Kosovo

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

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45 A similar trend has been noticed most recently in the Ukrainian war. Gavan Gray, ‘The Politicization of Sexual Violence in Ukraine: The Impact of Partisan Representation on Effective Responses’, The Hestia Review 2 (2024): 23–35, https://sociohex.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Hestia-Review-vol.-2-Gray.pdf.

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62 See with caution the shocking pictures in: ‘Foto+18/Përdhunimet e serbëve, denoncimi në kuvendin e Kosovës’, BalkanWeb: Gazeta Shqiptare, 16 May 2019, https://www.balkanweb.com/foto18-denoncimi-ne-kuvendin-e-kosoves-perdhunimet-e-serbeve/.

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71 DiLellio, ‘Seeking Justice for Wartime Sexual Violence in Kosovo: Voices and Silence of Women’, 622–3.

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77 Laura Sjoberg, ed., Gender and International Security: Feminist Perspectives (London/New York: Routledge, 2010); Cohn, Women and Wars.

78 Loken, ‘Rethinking Rape: The Role of Women in Wartime Violence.’

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80 Dara-Kay Cohen and Ragnhild Nordås, ‘Do States Delegate Shameful Violence to Militias? Patterns of Sexual Violence in Recent Armed Conflicts’, Journal of Conflict Resolution 59, no. 5 (2015): 877–98, https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002715576748.

81 Dara-Kay Cohen, Rape during Civil War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2016).

82 Jonathan Gottschall, ‘Explaining Wartime Rape’, Journal of Sex Research 41, no. 2 (2004): 129–36, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3813647; Wood, ‘Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and the Policy Implications of Recent Research.’

83 Farr, ‘Extreme War Rape in Today’s Civil-War-Torn States: A Contextual and Comparative Analysis.’; Davies and True, ‘The Pandemic of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and the Political Economy of Gender Inequality.’

84 Amelia Hoover-Green, The Commander's Dilemma: Violence and Restraint in Wartime (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2018).

85 Wood, ‘Rape as a Practice of War: Toward a Typology of Political Violence.’

86 David Luban, ‘A Theory of Crimes Against Humanity’, Yale Journal of International Law 29, no. 1 (2004): 85–167, https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/yjil/vol29/iss1/3.

87 Henry, ‘Theorizing Wartime Rape: Deconstructing Gender, Sexuality, and Violence.’

88 Henry, Ward, and Hirshberg, ‘A Multifactorial Model of Wartime Rape.’

89 Lee Ellis, Theories of Rape: Inquiries into the Causes of Sexual Aggression (New York: Hemisphere Publishing, 1989).

90 Randy Thornhill and Craig Palmer, A Natural History of Rape: Biological bases of Sexual Coercion (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000).

91 Caroline Kennedy-Pipe and Penny Stanley, ‘Rape in War: Lessons of the Balkan conflicts in the 1990s’, International Journal of Human Rights 4, no. 3–4 (2000): 67–84.

92 Hansen, ‘Gender, Nation, Rape: Bosnia and the Construction of Security.’

93 Rachel Jewkes, Loveday Penn-Kekana, and Hetty Rose-Junius, ‘If They Rape Me, I can’t Blame Them: Reflections on Gender in the Social Context of Child Rape in South Africa and Namibia’, Social Science & Medicine 61, no. 8 (2005): 1809–20, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.03.022.

94 David Buss and Neil Malamuth, eds., Sex, Power, Conflict: Evolutionary and Feminist Perspectives (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).

95 Henry, ‘Theorizing Wartime Rape: Deconstructing Gender, Sexuality, and Violence.’

96 Peggy Sanday, ‘The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study’, Journal of Social Issues 37, no. 4 (1981): 5–27, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1981.tb01068.x.

97 Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York: Bantam Books, 1975), 5.

98 Seifert, ‘War and Rape: A Preliminary Analysis.’

99 Carolyn Nordstrom, ‘Rape: Politics and Theory in War and Peace’, Australian Feminist Studies 11, no. 23 (1996): 147–62.

100 Gottschall, ‘Explaining Wartime Rape.’

101 Darius Rejali, ‘After Feminist Analyses of Bosnian Violence’, Peace Review 8, no. 3 (1996): 365–71; Rana Jaleel, ‘Weapons of Sex, Weapons of War: Feminisms, Ethnic Conflict and the Rise of Rape and Sexual Violence in Public International Law during the 1990s’, Cultural Studies 27, no. 1 (2013): 115–35, https://doi.org/10.1080/09502386.2012.722302.

102 Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

103 Gottschall, ‘Explaining Wartime Rape’, 133; Seifert, ‘Sexualized Violence and the Cultural Construction of War.’

104 Roland Littlewood, ‘Military Rape’, Anthropology Today 13, no. 2 (1997): 7–16, 11.

105 Janet Halley et al., Governance Feminism: An introduction (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2018).

106 Janet Halley, Split Decisions: How and Why to take a Break from Feminism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006).

107 Helga-Malmin Binningsbo and Ragnhild Nordås, ‘Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and the Perils of Impunity’, Journal of Conflict Resolution 66, no. 6 (2022): 1066–90, https://doi.org/10.1177/00220027221078330.

108 Halley, ‘Rape at Rome: Feminist Interventions in the Criminalization of Sex-Related Violence in Positive International Criminal Law’, 6.

109 Rather than an aspect of human condition, behaviour, culture, and experience of social and gender relations, structuralism is a method of interpretation and analysis, which focuses on relationships of contrast between elements in a conceptual system that reflect invariant patterns underlying a superficial diversity.

110 Azra Hromadzic, ‘Challenging the Discourse of Bosnian War Rapes’, in Living Gender after Communism, ed. Janet Johnson and Jean Robinson (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 169–84.

111 Buss, ‘Rethinking Rape as a Weapon of War.’

112 Doris Buss, ‘Knowing Women: Translating Patriarchy in International Criminal Law’, Social & Legal Studies 23, no. 1 (2014): 73–92, https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663913487398, 74.

113 Ratna Kapur, ‘The Tragedy of Victimization Rhetoric: Resurrecting the Native Subject in International/Post-Colonial Feminist Legal Politics’, Harvard Human Rights Journal 15 (2002): 1–37.

114 Halley, ‘Rape at Rome: Feminist Interventions in the Criminalization of Sex-Related Violence in Positive International Criminal Law.’

115 Engle, ‘Feminism and Its (Dis)contents: Criminalizing Wartime Rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina.’

116 Zarkov, The Body of War: Media, Ethnicity and Gender in the Break-up of Yugoslavia, 13.

117 Lila Abu-Lughod, Do Muslim Women need Saving? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013).

118 Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997; Repr., 2009).

119 R.W. Connell, Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1987), 98–9.

120 Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990; Repr., 2006), 25 (34).

121 Judith Butler, Who's afraid of Gender? (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2024), 14.

122 Michel Foucault, La volonté de savoir, Histoire de la sexualité, vol. 1 (Paris: Gallimard, 1976; English transl. The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, New York: Pantheon Books, 1978).

123 Lauren Wilcox, ed., Bodies of Violence: Theorizing Embodied Subjects in International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 167.

124 Banwell, ‘Security, Peace and Development: Unpacking Discursive Constructions of Wartime Rape and Sexual Violence in Syria’, 19.

125 Henry, ‘Theorizing Wartime Rape: Deconstructing Gender, Sexuality, and Violence’, 49.

126 Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape, 32.

127 Hirschauer, The Securitization of Rape: Women, War and Sexual Violence.

128 True, The Political Economy of Violence against Women; Meger, Rape Loot Pillage: The Political Economy of Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict.

129 Anne-Kathrin Kreft, ‘Civil Society Perspectives on Sexual Violence in Conflict: Patriarchy and War Strategy in Colombia’, International Affairs 96, no. 2 (2020): 457–78, https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz257.

130 Leatherman, Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict; Baaz and Stern, Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War? Perceptions, Prescriptions, Problems in the Congo and Beyond; Alsaba and Kapilashrami, ‘Understanding Women’s Experience of Violence and the Political Economy of Gender in Conflict: The Case of Syria.’; Banwell, ‘Security, Peace and Development: Unpacking Discursive Constructions of Wartime Rape and Sexual Violence in Syria.’

131 Davies and True, ‘Reframing Conflict-Related Sexual and Gender-Based Violence: Bringing Gender Analysis Back in’, 501.

132 Banwell, ‘Security, Peace and Development: Unpacking Discursive Constructions of Wartime Rape and Sexual Violence in Syria’, 17.

133 Jane Freedman, ‘Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugee Women: A Hidden Aspect of the Refugee Crisis’, Reproductive Health Matters 24, no. 47 (2016): 18–26, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhm.2016.05.003.

134 UN International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, IT-98-33-T (2001), IT-98-33-A (2004), http://www.icty.org/case/krstic/4.

135 Buss, ‘Knowing Women: Translating Patriarchy in International Criminal Law.’

136 Tone Bringa, Being Muslim the Bosnian Way: Identity and Community in a Central Bosnian Village (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).

137 Buss, ‘Knowing Women: Translating Patriarchy in International Criminal Law’, 75.

138 Olujic, ‘Embodiment of Terror: Gendered Violence in Peacetime and Wartime in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.’

139 Albert Doja, ‘Fertility Trends, Marriage Patterns and Savant Typologies in Albanian Context’, Journal of Family History 35, no. 4 (2010): 346–67, https://doi.org/10.1177/0363199010381045.

140 e.g. Karl Kaser, Hirten, Kämpfer, Stammeshelden: Ursprünge und Gegenwart des Balkanischen Patriarchats (Wien: Böhlau, 1992); Karl Kaser, Patriarchy after patriarchy: gender relations in Turkey and in the Balkans, 1500–2000 (Berlin/London: LIT-Verlag, 2008).

141 Skjelsbæk, ‘Sexual Violence and War: Mapping out a Complex Relationship’, 215.

142 Nordås and Cohen, ‘Conflict-Related Sexual Violence’, 199.

143 Wood, ‘Variation in Sexual Violence During War.’

144 e.g. Meger, 'The Fetishization of Sexual Violence in International Security'.

145 Nordas and Cohen, 'Conflict-Related Sexual Violence', 199.

146 Stiglmayer, Mass Rape: The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina; Allen, Rape Warfare: The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia.

147 Susan Brownmiller, ‘Making Female Bodies the Battlefield’, in Mass Rape: The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina, ed. Alexandra Stiglmayer (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 180–2, 180.

148 Hansen, ‘Gender, Nation, Rape: Bosnia and the Construction of Security.’

149 Allen, Rape Warfare: The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia, 80.

150 Enika Abazi, ‘Between Facts and Interpretations: Three Images of the Balkan Wars 1912–1913’, in War in the Balkans: Conflict and Diplomacy Before World War I, ed. James Pettifer and Tom Buchanan (London: I.B.Tauris, 2016), 203–225.

151 Emile Sicard, La Zadruga sud-slave dans l'évolution du groupe domestique (Paris: Ophrys, 1943); Philip Mosely, ‘The Peasant Family: The Zadruga or Communal Joint Family in the Balkans and Its Recent Evolution; The Distribution of the Zadruga within Southeastern Europe’, in Communal families in the Balkans: the Zadruga, ed. Robert Byrnes (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1976); Maria Todorova, ‘Myth-Making in European Family History: The Zadruga Revisited’, East European Politics & Societies 4, no. 1 (1990): 30–76, https://doi.org/10.1177/0888325490004001003. [Reprint, Maria Todorova, Balkan family structure and the European pattern: demographic developments in Ottoman Bulgaria (2nd rev. and enl. ed., Budapest: Central European University Press, 2006), 127–162.].

152 Shtjefen Gjeçov, Kanuni i Lekë Dukagjinit [Law of Leka Dukagjini] (Shkodra: Shtypshkronja Franceskane, 1933; Repr., 1993); Margaret Hasluck, The Unwritten Law in Albania (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954); Nebi Bardhoshi, Antropologji e Kanunit (Tirana: Pika pa sipërfaqe, 2016).

153 Albert Doja, ‘Customary Laws, Folk Culture, and Social Lifeworlds: Albanian Studies in Critical Perspective’, in Spomenica Valtazara Bogišića o stogodišnjici njegove smrti [Gedächtnisschrift für Valtazar Bogišić zur 100. Wiederkehr seines Todestages], ed. Luka Breneselovic (Beograd: Sluzbeni, 2011): vol. 2, 183–99.

154 Enika Abazi and Albert Doja, ‘International Representations of Balkan Wars: A Socio-Anthropological Account in International Relations Perspective’, Cambridge Review of International Affairs 29, no. 2 (2016): 581–610, https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2015.1118998; Enika Abazi and Albert Doja, ‘The Past in the Present: Time and Narrative of Balkan Wars in Media Industry and International Politics’, Third World Quarterly 38, no. 4 (2017): 1012–42, https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2016.1191345; Enika Abazi and Albert Doja, ‘Time and Narrative: Temporality, Memory, and Instant History of Balkan Wars’, Time & Society 27, no. 2 (2018): 239–72, https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463x16678249. [Transl. in Serbian, ‘Prošlost u sadašnjosti: vrijeme i narativ o balkanskim ratovima u medijskoj industriji i međunarodnoj politici.’ Sineza: Časopis za humanističke i društvene Nauke [Synesis: Journal for Humanities and Social Sciences] 3 (2), 2022, 125–53, https://doi.org/10.7251/SIN2202007A]; Albert Doja and Enika Abazi, ‘The Mytho-Logics of Othering and Containment: Culture, Politics and Theory in International Relations’, International Critical Thought 11, no. 1 (2021): 130–55, https://doi.org/10.1080/21598282.2021.1886145.

155 James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).

156 Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 33–54.

157 Roger Keesing and Andrew Strathern, Cultural Anthropology: A Contemporary Perspective, 3rd ed. (Fort Worth: Harcourt, 1998), 14–25.

158 Mikael Kurkiala, ‘Interpreting Honour Killings’, Anthropology Today 19, no. 1 (2003): 6–7, https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8322.00157.

159 Olujic, ‘Embodiment of Terror: Gendered Violence in Peacetime and Wartime in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina’, 45.

160 Julie Mertus, ‘Women in Kosovo: Contested Terrains: The Role of National Identity in Shaping and Challenging Gender Identity’, in Gender Politics in the Western Balkans: Women and Society in Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav Successor States, ed. Sabrina P. Ramet (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), 171–86, 173.

161 DiLellio, ‘Seeking Justice for Wartime Sexual Violence in Kosovo: Voices and Silence of Women’, 641.

162 Adam Jones, ‘Gender and Ethnic Conflict in Ex-Yugoslavia’, Ethnic and Racial Studies 17, no. 1 (1994): 115–34, 119.

163 Hayden, ‘Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts: Sexual Violence in Liminalized States’, 35.

164 Buss, ‘Rethinking Rape as a Weapon of War’, 148.

165 Baaz and Stern, Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War? Perceptions, Prescriptions, Problems in the Congo and Beyond, 49.

166 Morokvasic, ‘The Logics of Exclusion: Nationalism, Sexism and the Yugoslav War’, 80.

167 Baaz and Stern, Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War? Perceptions, Prescriptions, Problems in the Congo and Beyond; Henry, ‘The Fixation on Wartime Rape: Feminist Critique and International Criminal Law.’; Hirschauer, The Securitization of Rape: Women, War and Sexual Violence; Wood, ‘Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and the Policy Implications of Recent Research.’; Banwell, ‘Security, Peace and Development: Unpacking Discursive Constructions of Wartime Rape and Sexual Violence in Syria.’

168 Lokot, ‘Challenging Sensationalism: Narratives on Rape as a Weapon of War in Syria.’

169 Meger, Rape Loot Pillage: The Political Economy of Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict.

170 Fionnuala NiAolain, ‘Political Violence and Gender during Times of Transition’, Columbia Journal of Gender & Law 15, no. 3 (2006): 829–49.

171 Buss, ‘Rethinking Rape as a Weapon of War.’; Halley, ‘Rape at Rome: Feminist Interventions in the Criminalization of Sex-Related Violence in Positive International Criminal Law.’; Leatherman, Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict.

172 Nordås and Cohen, ‘Conflict-Related Sexual Violence’, 198–9.

173 Cohen, Rape during Civil War; Wood, ‘Rape as a Practice of War: Toward a Typology of Political Violence.’

174 Nordås and Cohen, ‘Conflict-Related Sexual Violence’, 200.

175 Weitsman, ‘The Politics of Identity and Sexual Violence: A Review of Bosnia and Rwanda.’; Charli Carpenter, Forgetting Children Born of War: Setting the Human Rights Agenda in Bosnia and Beyond (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010).

176 Banwell, ‘Security, Peace and Development: Unpacking Discursive Constructions of Wartime Rape and Sexual Violence in Syria’, 17.

177 Bina Shah, ‘Afghan Woman: Save Me from the Taliban; Judith Butler: We'll Redefine Womanhood, You'll be Fine’, X @BinaShah, 08/09/2021, https://twitter.com/BinaShah/status/1435550607914459137.

178 True, The Political Economy of Violence against Women.

179 Butler, Who's afraid of Gender?

180 Charlesworth and Chinkin, The Boundaries of International Law: A Feminist Analysis; Deibler, ‘Rape by any Other Name: Mapping the Feminist Legal Discourse Regarding Rape in Conflict onto Transitional Justice in Cambodia.’; Lokot, ‘Challenging Sensationalism: Narratives on Rape as a Weapon of War in Syria’; Campbell, Kirsten. “Rape as a ‘crime against humanity’: trauma, law and justice in the ICTY.” Journal of Human Rights 2, no. 4 (2003): 507–515. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1475483032000137093.

181 Doja, ‘Fertility Trends, Marriage Patterns and Savant Typologies in Albanian Context’, 361–2.

182 Albert Doja, ‘Politics of Mass Rapes in Ethnic Conflict: A Morphodynamics of Raw Madness and Cooked Evil’, Crime, Law and Social Change 71, no. 5 (2019): 541–80, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-018-9800-0, 542.

183 cf. Elizabeth Krause and Milena Marchesi, ‘Fertility Politics as ‘Social Viagra’: Reproducing Boundaries, Social Cohesion, and Modernity in Italy’, American Anthropologist 109, no. 2 (2007): 350–62, https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.2007.109.2.350.

184 Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel, Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

185 Doja, ‘Politics of Mass Rapes in Ethnic Conflict: A Morphodynamics of Raw Madness and Cooked Evil’, 569–71.

186 Carlo Koos and Richard Traunmüller, ‘The Gendered Costs of Stigma: How Experiences of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence Affect Civic Engagement for Women and Men’, American Journal of Political Science, no. Online Version of Record before inclusion in an issue (2024): 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12863.

187 Hromadzic, ‘Challenging the Discourse of Bosnian War Rapes.’; Helms, Innocence and Victimhood: Gender, Nation, and Women's Activism in Postwar Bosnia-Herzegovina.

188 Riki Boeschoten, ‘The Trauma of War Rape: A Comparative View on the Bosnian Conflict and the Greek Civil War’, History and Anthropology 14, no. 1 (2003): 41–54.

189 Doja, ‘Politics of Mass Rapes in Ethnic Conflict: A Morphodynamics of Raw Madness and Cooked Evil’, 542.

190 Albert Doja, ‘Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009): The Apotheosis of Heroic Anthropology’, Anthropology Today 26, no. 5 (2010): 18–23, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2010.00758.x; Albert Doja, ‘Social Morphodynamics: Mapping Identity Transformations, Cultural Encounters, and the Evolution of Core Values’, Social Epistemology Review and Reply Collective 7, no. 1 (2018): 14–25, https://socialepistemologydotcom.files.wordpress.com/2018/01/2018-01-11-doja-morphodynamics.pdf; Jean-François Santucci, Albert Doja, and Laurent Capocchi, ‘A Discrete-Event Simulation of Claude Lévi-Strauss’ Structural Analysis of Myths based on Symmetry and Double Twist Transformations’, Symmetry 12, no. 10 (2020), #1706, https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12101706; Albert Doja, Laurent Capocchi, and Jean-François Santucci, ‘Computational Challenges to Test and Revitalize Claude Lévi-Strauss Transformational Methodology’, Big Data & Society 8, no. 2 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517211037862; Doja, Albert. “The predicament of heroic anthropology.” Anthropology Today 22, no. 3 (2006): 18–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2006.00439.x.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Albert Doja

Albert Doja is currently a Statutory University Professor of anthropology at the University of Lille, France, and a Statutory Member of the National Academy of Sciences, Albania (elected in 2008 to the first Chair of anthropology). He was awarded with distinction a Ph.D. in Social Anthropology in 1993 from the Paris School of Advanced Studies in Social Sciences (EHESS) and a Professorial accreditation (Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches) in sociology and anthropology in 2004 from Paris Descartes University, Sorbonne, qualifying for full University Professorship within the French academic system. He has been a former Visiting Research Scholar at Harvard University, a Honorary Fellow of the Department of Anthropology at University College London and on temporary assignment posted to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) as the founding Vice-Chancellor of the new University of Durres in Albania. He has held several academic positions in France, USA, Britain, Ireland and Albania, lectured in social anthropology and conducted extensive fieldwork research in many other countries. He is on the editorial board of international academic journals and he has so far published a couple of books and many original articles in international peer-reviewed and indexed journals. Special interests include politics of knowledge, power and ideology; political anthropology of symbolism and religion; intercultural communication, interethnic relations and international migrations; cultural heritage and social transformations; social moralities and intellectual productions in the context of global religious pluralism and diversity; international politics of hegemonic representations; comparative politics of identity transformations; instrumental politics of civic ideas and ethnic motivations; comparative politics of European identity and European integration; identity structures, discourses, practices, and processes; political technologies of the self, personhood, gender construction, kinship organisation, and reproduction activism; anthropology of politics and history; political-anthropological theory, structural analysis, post-structuralism and neo-structuralism. (https://pro.univ-lille.fr/en/albert-doja/)