In pursuit of primary teachers’ work motivation amid increased external neoliberal pressure in education

ABSTRACT

This study explored factors that were important to primary teachers’ motivation due to increased pressure caused by changes associated with a global neoliberal movement. A questionnaire (n = 243) was conducted to gain an overview of factors causing pressure on teachers. Interviews (n = 13) were conducted to reveal factors relevant to teachers’ motivation in the past, present, and future. The study indicated that teachers, regardless of type of motivation, felt the same extent of external control and experienced similar reasons for pressure. The study showed that autonomous motivation was more present than controlled motivation, and that the teachers emphasised support rather than external pressure. The study also found that a type of motivation could change due to the application of a variety of coping strategies. Therefore, when teachers experience external pressures, they benefit from consistent support.

KEYWORDS:

• External pressure
• motivational factors
• primary teachers
• work experiences

Introduction

During recent decades, teaching has become one of the world’s most stressful professions (Hakanen, Bakker, and Schaufeli 2006). This change is global and can be attributed to the introduction of neoliberalist policies and the consequent influences in education (Goodson 2010). Neoliberalism retains classical liberal values such as freedom, humanity, self-determination, and individuality, regardless of economic wealth (Autio, Kuurme, and Mikser 2013), but neoliberal ideology places an emphasis on economic liberalisation and the needs of a free market. Structural changes aimed at establishing privatisation and ‘free trade’ have been the result (Peters 2010). Core neoliberal changes such as the imposition of an externally imposed curriculum, an expectation of success measured by national state exams, and the introduction of teaching standards and external evaluations (Goodson 2010) often directly affect teachers’ work. These changes can result in stress in the workplace: research (Pelletier and Rocchi 2016) has shown that constant external pressure can have a negative impact on teachers’ autonomous motivation and, consequently, professional development (Watt and Richardson 2008). Autonomous motivation is the most self-determined motivation type, implying that a person has a full sense of choice and willingness, and is more engaged and committed to their work (cf. Reeve and Su 2014). An inability to cope with high levels of pressure, moreover, has led to global problems with teacher retention (OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) 2005).

Despite the increase of pressure from external factors, most teachers globally report an overall satisfaction with their daily work (OECD 2014), and primary teachers report more job satisfaction than secondary school teachers (cf. Perrachione, Rosser, and Petersen 2008). A recent study conducted in Estonia revealed that, although teachers reported being under constant pressure, they are also satisfied with an improvement in their economic situation (Timoštšuk, Ugaste, and Mets-Alunurm 2018). As motivation has been shown to support teachers to cope better with external pressures (Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2017), it is important to explore teachers’ perceptions of increase in external pressure in tandem with the factors that affect their motivation. By understanding the perceptions of increased pressure (cf. Ryan and Deci 2017) and teachers’ lived experiences during periods of change (cf. Goodson 2010), we aim to better prepare student teachers with coping strategies and to design pressure management for in-service teacher education.

Hence, the aim of this study is to explore factors that have been important for primary teachers’ motivation in the context of increased pressure. A questionnaire was used to identify types of motivation and perceptions of pressure. The questionnaire was followed by semi-structured interviews to explore factors that affect primary teachers’ motivation throughout their working years.

External pressure in teachers’ work in the neoliberal context

Changes to the national education system of some countries have had a more noticeable impact depending on historical background (Mikser and Goodson 2017). Eastern European countries, such as Estonia, used to experience ‘Soviet’ centralisation and ‘top-down’ regulations, which was particularly evident in the work of teachers (cf. Timoštšuk, Ugaste, and Mets-Alunurm 2018). Thus, neoliberal trends were admired and perceived as the ‘West’ (Mikser and Goodson 2017). An outcome-oriented approach to education was introduced in the early 1990s and teachers’ professional standards, including competence requirements, in 2005. By now, the understanding is that the blocks of the curriculum in Estonia should be learning outcomes which are understood very differently among teachers (Ruus and Timoštšuk 2014). This shift has led to a differentiation of professional development: some teachers actively participate in in-service training programmes, while others ignore the changes (Lepik, Loogma, and Talts 2013). The majority of Estonian teachers have handled expectations well. Recent results of the Programme for International Student Assessment, which measures 15-year-olds’ ability to use their reading, mathematics, and science knowledge and skills to meet real-life challenges, showed that, worldwide, Estonian adolescents rank among the top achievers (OECD 2016). Most teachers in Estonia, however, do not feel that society values their work (OECD 2014) and, despite a national curriculum that emphasises teacher autonomy, teachers still feel a lack of autonomy due to high-stakes standardised testing (Erss, Kalmus, and Autio 2016).

Contextual factors (education policies, colleagues, head teachers, parents) can influence teachers’ motivation by supporting or undermining teachers’ psychological needs (Deci and Ryan 2000). Autonomous motivation is encouraged in environments that support basic psychological needs, namely (1) autonomy (experiencing work-related self-direction and endorsement); (2) relatedness (experiencing supportive interpersonal relationships); and (3) competence (experiencing work-related proficiency) (Reeve and Su 2014). Conversely, motivation declines when the satisfaction of these needs is thwarted (Pelletier and Rocchi 2016), and an inability to cope with high levels of pressure can diminish autonomous motivation (Reeve and Su 2014). The introduction of neoliberal educational changes, moreover, has often neglected teachers’ sense of professionalism: changes have been introduced as non-negotiable and inevitable (Goodson 2003). Such ‘top-down’ policies can lead teachers to perceive that they are being controlled by external factors (Reeve and Su 2014).

As an antidote to the potential increase in external pressure due to the normalisation of neoliberal discourse, elements of ‘remembering’ and ‘renewal’ can be used as instruments of positive reinforcement to bring out teachers’ voices and lived experiences (cf. Framework of six R’s, Rudd and Goodson 2017). ‘Remembering’ refers to the historical analysis of personal stories, as well as the experiences of transformations, whereas ‘renewal’ refers to the consideration of memories and experiences of transformations as possible ways to reimagine alternative futures (Rudd and Goodson 2017).

Factors fostering motivation and minimising external pressure

Teachers have various motives for choosing their career, and intrinsic and extrinsic goals have been compared and contrasted (cf. Goal Contents Theory, Ryan and Deci 2017). Intrinsic goals involve choosing to teach for the sheer enjoyment that teaching brings – wanting to help others, pursuit of personal growth, and a desire to contribute to one’s community. Extrinsic goals can originate with factors such as job security, a regular salary, or long vacations (Reeve and Su 2014). The first proposal of Goal Contents Theory posits that intrinsic goals are related to personally valued aspects, whereas extrinsic goals are associated with auxiliary aspects (Ryan and Deci 2017). The second proposal suggests that focusing more on intrinsic than extrinsic goals will lead to intrinsic motivation, since personally valued aspects will satisfy the need for autonomy, relatedness, and competence (Ryan and Deci 2017). A focus on intrinsic goals results in the development of more effective teaching methods, persistence, and professionality (Watt and Richardson 2008). A qualitative study of primary teachers in the USA showed that intrinsic factors (e.g. efficacy, working with students) significantly influenced teachers’ job satisfaction and retention, whereas extrinsic factors (e.g. low salary, work overload) contributed towards dissatisfaction (Perrachione, Rosser, and Petersen 2008).

Teacher retention is higher where teachers have greater autonomy, high levels of administrative support, and clearly communicated expectations (Brill and McCartney 2008). Teachers in autonomy-supportive environments can choose and manage their work to make it more meaningful. A study of Norwegian teachers (Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2015) also revealed that autonomy and flexibility are significant sources of job satisfaction because teachers appreciate being able to choose how to work with their students. Further, a study of Israeli primary school teachers (Roth et al. 2007) found that teachers with autonomous motivation who provide autonomy support to their students experience a feeling of higher personal accomplishment and less emotional exhaustion.

Recognition of the value of their work has also been shown to be vital for teachers’ motivation, e.g. meaningful feedback (Leiter and Maslach 2000). The perception of being valued by administrators, parents, students, and colleagues can encourage autonomous motivation and commitment to teaching (Fernet, Austin, and Vallerand 2012). A global neoliberal movement, however, has meant that society has become more resistant to acknowledging teaching as a full profession (cf. Humphreys 2017).

Factors hindering motivation and intensifying external pressure

The neoliberal movement has engendered expectations from teachers’ work (Apple 2009), and, subsequently, the most common reason given for job stress is an individual’s inability cope with their environment and to meet workplace demands (cf. Ganster and Perrewé 2011). Policy- or task-related problems can prevent teachers from accomplishing tasks and place a cognitive, physical, or emotional burden on them (Cavanaugh et al. 2000). A lack of resources such as social services support or a lack of training can further contribute to feelings of mounting stress (Fernet and Austin 2014).

External pressure directing teachers how to think, feel, and behave and where control is exacted by the setting of goals, time restraints, or contingent rewards can foster controlling environments (Fernet et al. 2012). Such situations can arise in schools where teaching programmes have been fixed ‘from above’ with the result that there is little time to meet every learner’s individual needs (cf. Humphreys 2017). Pressurising and demanding job stressors can shift autonomous motivation to controlled motivation or amotivation (Deci and Ryan 2000). Studies show that teachers perceiving controlled motivation become more exposed to job stressors and are at risk of exhaustion and burnout (Fernet and Austin 2014; Van Den Broeck et al. 2011).

Teachers of different ages and experience have been seen to perceive similar sources of stress (e.g. high workload, severe time pressure, lack of value consonance), but their coping strategies can be different (Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2015). The major reasons for beginning teachers to consider leaving teaching are the characteristics of the school environment (Wynn, Carboni, and Patall 2007). Similarly, a study among Australian beginning primary school teachers (Adoniou 2016) found that half were unsure about continuation as they did not receive the mentoring and support that they felt they needed. The opportunity to participate in the development of school-related policies and practices can also be important to beginning teachers (cf. Liu 2007).

Besides controlling work environments, salary can be a major factor for dissatisfaction (Wynn, Carboni, and Patall 2007), followed by student misbehaviour and disengagement (Bakker et al. 2007). Students’ disruptive behaviour can contribute to feelings of burnout and change teacher motivation (Fernet et al. 2012). Humphreys (2017) argues that, due to the age-staged standardised process, there are more special educational needs students in classes without adequate support. This could be problematic, as unsupported special educational needs students who cannot or will not meet the high expectations could become disengaged (Humphreys 2017).

To summarise, educational changes influenced by the neoliberal movement have intensified a teacher’s role and work (Humphreys 2017) and have, therefore, caused problems of retention around the world (Apple 2009; Hakanen, Bakker, and Schaufeli 2006). Personal and environmental factors can help to minimise or intensify teachers’ perceptions of external pressure by influencing their motivation (Fernet and Austin 2014; Ryan and Deci 2017). The aim of this study was to explore factors important to primary teachers’ motivation in the context of increased pressure in teaching.

Three research questions were set:

1. Which motivational groups appear among primary teachers?

2. How have teachers with differing motivation perceived an increase in external sources of pressure?

3. Which factors were/are/will be important for teachers’ motivation in the past, present, and future?

Methods

Our aim was to explore factors that influenced primary teachers’ work motivation in the context of neoliberal education provision and increased pressure on teachers.

A general sample questionnaire and individual interviews were conducted. The questionnaire was used to gain an overview of teachers’ motivational orientations by exploring their motives to enter, their decision to remain in, and any thoughts they may have about leaving, the teaching profession. Four groups were created based on the three motivational aspects, and differences between the groups were identified. An exploration of how different motivational groups perceived any increase in external sources of pressure followed. Finally, a smaller group of teachers was selected for semi-structured interviews in order to explore the varying factors in more depth.

Participants

243 primary teachers across Estonia completed the questionnaire, 96% of whom were women. The mean age of the participants was 47.2 years (SD = 10.1), and the mean length of experience was 22.7 years (SD = 11.5). In Estonia, primary school grades range from one (students aged 6 to 7) to grade six (students aged 11 to 12). It is usual for primary teachers to teach language, literature, mathematics, science, art, handicraft, and human studies, which are regarded as main subjects. Students usually have different teachers for all subjects from grade seven, although primary teachers may also continue to teach a specific subject (e.g. mathematics, handicrafts). Most of the teachers (84.9%) were full-time primary teachers teaching grades one to six. The rest of the participants (15.1%) worked as a primary teacher and subject teacher in grades one to nine.

Teachers who had filled in the questionnaire and agreed to participate further in the study were contacted, and the purpose of the interview was explained. Not all teachers who agreed initially to participate were interested in being interviewed: some no longer worked as a primary teacher. Interviews were conducted with 13 teachers. The respondents in the interview stage were all women, the mean age was 40.2 years (SD = 9.1), and the mean experience was 16.4 years (SD = 9.7).

Data collection and instruments

The questionnaire

Teachers received the questionnaires at their schools. Data was collected from autumn 2015 to spring 2016. The completed questionnaire was put into an envelope and sealed. The questionnaire included questions about background characteristics (age, working experience, school level they work at). Three questions related to teachers’ work motivation and two questions related to perceptions of increased pressure (see Appendix).

The first part of the questionnaire was based on parts one and two of Goal Contents Theory (Ryan and Deci 2017) and included questions about motives for choosing to teach: the categories were intrinsic motive (e.g. it was my vocation), mixed motive (e.g. it was due to coincidence of certain circumstances), and extrinsic motive (e.g. it was someone else’s wish or external pressure). This part of the questionnaire also included four motivational factors for staying in teaching (cf. Pelletier and Rocchi 2016): these four categories were intrinsic factor (e.g. I like teacher’s work), mixed factor (e.g. I can do what I like either during or alongside teaching), and two extrinsic factors (e.g. teaching has non-work related advantages, and I have no choice to leave teaching). The teachers were asked to mark which motive and factor was most important to them. All items were assessed on a 5-point Likert scale that was comprised of (1) Not important at all to (5) Very important. Finally, teachers had to mark whether they had thought about leaving the profession by answering ‘Yes’ or ‘No’.

The second part of the questionnaire included a question aimed to produce an overview of any increase in pressure on teachers’ work over recent decades. It was followed by a more detailed exploration of perceptions of pressure with eight categories of potential sources. The first seven categories were external sources associated with neoliberal change from national to classroom level. Category eight addressed the motivational context of the study and explored pressure at a personal level. The questions were assessed on a 5-point Likert scale from (1) Have not increased at all to (5) Have greatly increased.

The interviews

Interviews are a meaningful way to explore teachers’ motives; thus, each interview was individual, and teachers were asked to choose where they were done. Interviews were verbal and recorded with a voice recorder. The interviews were conducted from spring 2016 until autumn 2017.

The interview was based on a narrative research design which enables the collection of data about a person’s life (e.g. experiences, feelings, purposes) that is otherwise difficult to access (Wengraf 2001). This method also helps to demonstrate how a person’s past experiences have contributed to present and future experiences (Creswell 2012). Most importantly, a teacher’s voice and spirit are brought out through their stories, emphasising the most important elements of their lived experiences (Atkinson 2012). Teachers were asked three open-ended questions to formulate their story of becoming and being a teacher:

1. Why did you want to become a teacher?

2. How has your teaching career been?

3. What are your thoughts about the future?

The intent of question one was to explore what and/or who motivated teachers to choose the profession. The intent of question two was to explore different experiences that have reduced or intensified teachers’ motivation and what kind of external pressure they have perceived. The intent of question three was to explore whether teachers are still motivated to continue in the profession. Teachers were encouraged to tell their personal stories in chronological order from childhood onwards, emphasising and elaborating on the events and people that were meaningful to them. This method helps the interviewee to create structure in a personal story (Goodson and Sikes 2001). Interviews did not have a time limit and teachers could tell their stories as they wished. Interviews lasted from 27 minutes to 153 minutes.

Data analysis

A total of 243 cases were used in the analysis. The first step was a cluster analysis to find motivational groups. Three inputs were used: (1) the most important motive for entering the teaching profession; (2) the most important factor for retention; and (3) thoughts about leaving. Hierarchical cluster analysis was used to find the optimal number of clusters, then a two-step cluster analysis was conducted to create motivational groups. The model summary showed a good profile with a score of 0.7, and the ratio of the largest cluster to the smallest cluster was 1.78. A post-hoc analysis with Tukey correction was used to identify whether groups differed statistically with regard to motives to become a teacher, main factor for retention, and thoughts about leaving the profession. One-way ANOVA was used within the clusters to create an overview of the distribution of responses.

The second part of the questionnaire analysis included creating an overview of how the different motivational groups perceived any increase in external sources of pressure. One-way ANOVA was used to create an overview of mean scores and standard deviations. Finally, post-hoc analysis with Tukey correction was used to identify whether the perceptions are statistically different.

The interviews were transcribed verbatim and then analysed qualitatively in a NVivo 11 programme. First, a coding frame was created with three main categories – past, present, and future. Then subcategories were created: motives to become a teacher under ‘Past’ category, supporting factors of work motivation under ‘Past’, ‘Present’, and ‘Future’ categories, and hindering factors of work motivation under ‘Past’, ‘Present’, and ‘Future’. This enabled an analysis of important aspects highlighted by teachers in different phases of their lives and to compare the phases. During the coding process, researchers constantly compared findings to ascertain whether similar statements were found under the subcategories. After the coding process, the most important factors for teachers were identified by the number of interviews coded. For example, if all 13 respondents spoke about a topic, then that topic was identified as very important. The researchers decided not to use reference-based importance sequences, as one respondent may have spoken a lot about a specific topic, thus such a sequence is not objective. Additionally, as a few interview participants had worked at another school level prior to working as a primary teacher, experiences relating only to primary school teaching were included in the interview analysis.

Results

Motivational groups of primary teachers

Four motivational groups of teachers were found (see Table 1). In motivational group one (n = 87) everyone reported experiencing autonomous work motivation and the group was named autonomous. Teachers in this group chose the profession based on an intrinsic motive, have remained working due to an intrinsic factor, and no one has thought about leaving teaching.

Table 1. Motivational groups of teachers (n = 243). Inputs are ordered by their importance

	Autonomous	Declining autonomous	Shifting to autonomous	Controlling
	n = 87 (35.8%)	n = 57 (23.5%)	n = 49 (20.2%)	n = 50 (20.6%)
Variable	%	%	%	%
The motive to become a teacher
It was my vocation	100	100	0	32
It was due to an occurrence of certain circumstances	0	0	89.8	58
It was the wish of someone else or another external pressure…	0	0	10.2	10
Factors for retention
I like teachers’ work	100	100	100	0
I can do what I like either, during, or alongside teaching	0	0	0	18
Teaching has non-work-related advantages	0	0	0	76
I have no choice to leave teaching	0	0	0	6
Thoughts about leaving the profession
No	100	0	53.1	22
Yes	0	100	46.9	78

Motivational group two (n = 57) can also be described as experiencing autonomous motivation. All the teachers in this group chose the profession and have remained in teaching for an intrinsic reason. All in this group have thought about leaving teaching, referring to a possible decline in motivation. This group was named declining autonomous.

Motivational group three (n = 49) contains a mixture of autonomously and controllingly motivated teachers. The main motive for choosing the profession was a combined motive (89.8%); no one chose the profession for an intrinsic motive, although everyone in this group had remained in the profession because of an intrinsic factor. The percentage of teachers in this group who had thought about leaving is almost equal to those who had not. Thus, group three was named shifting to autonomous.

Motivational group four (n = 50) is also a mixed group. More than half of group four chose the profession for a combination of motives, and most teachers (76%) have remained working due to extrinsic factors. Most (78%) have had thoughts about leaving teaching. Thus, group four was named controlling.

Post-hoc analysis with Tukey correction was used to identify which groups differed the most. The results of the main motive to choose to teach showed that (1) the autonomous group contained differences from the shifting to autonomous motivation and the controlling motivational groups (p < 0.001) while also containing similarities to the declining autonomous group; (2) the declining autonomous group contained differences from the shifting to autonomous motivation and the controlling motivation groups (p < 0.001). Similarities showed up in the main motive of teachers in the shifting to autonomous and the controlling groups. The results for the main factor for retention showed that only the controlling motivation group differed from every other group (p < 0.001). All groups were significantly different from each other on thoughts about leaving the profession (p < 0.001).

An overview of perceptions about the increase of different sources of pressure was created (see Table 2). First, teachers rated the overall increase in pressure on their work. Secondly, they rated eight different sources of pressure. The post-hoc analysis with Tukey correction showed that the perceptions were similar.

Table 2. Overview of motivational groups’ perceptions about the increase of different pressure sources (n = 243)

	Autonomous	Declining autonomous	Shifting to autonomous	Controlling
	n = 87 (35.8%)	n = 57 (23.5%)	n = 49 (20.2%)	n = 50 (20.6%)
External or internal source of pressure	Mean (SD)	Mean (SD)	Mean (SD)	Mean (SD)
Overall perception of an increase in pressures	3.98 (0.83)	4.22 (0.80)	3.98 (0.88)	4.13 (0.79)
National educational politics and regulations	4.25 (0.70)	4.42 (0.69)	4.22 (1.03)	4.27 (0.72)
County-level regulations and inspections	3.11 (1.01)	3.19 (0.85)	3.09 (1.15)	3.11 (0.97)
Local area educational officials’ activities	3.32 (1.05)	3.14 (0.94)	3.33 (1.04)	2.91 (1.06)
School administration/leadership	3.86 (0.80)	3.95 (0.86)	3.86 (0.97)	3.66 (1.01)
Colleagues	3.18 (1.09)	3.11 (1.01)	3.22 (1.04)	3.05 (0.88)
Parents	4.32 (0.83)	4.52 (0.79)	4.46 (0.69)	4.36 (0.65)
Students	4.20 (0.80)	4.10 (0.82)	4.00 (0.86)	4.20 (0.73)
My demands on myself as a professional	4.00 (0.96)	3.66 (1.01)	3.89 (1.01)	3.86 (0.95)

All groups have rated ‘National educational politics and regulations’, ‘Parents’, and ‘Students’ as sources of pressure that have increased greatly. All four groups also rated ‘County-level regulations and inspections’ and ‘School administration/leadership’ as somewhat increased sources of external pressure.

The meaning of motivational factors in teachers’ work

Based on the motivational groups identified (see Table 1), it is evident that teachers’ motives can change with time. Individual interviews (n = 13) were conducted to explore in depth which factors were important to teachers at the beginning of their work, which were important at the time of the interview, and what are their future thoughts regarding their work. Given that autonomous motivation has been found to minimise the effects of external job stressors (Trépanier, Fernet, and Austin 2013), the five highest minimising factors (see Table 3) and the five highest intensifying factors (see Table 4) are highlighted. The results will be described with quotes from interviews (see below). Each participant has been given an alias to assure confidentiality.

Table 3. Five highest factors minimising perception of external pressure by number of interviews coded (n = 13)

Past	No. of interviews coded	References	Present	No. of interviews coded	References	Future	No. of interviews coded	References
Overcoming difficult situations	10	25	Work-related emotions	13	24	Wanting to contribute to school development	2	2
Experiences with students	9	19	Work-related beliefs	12	35	Wanting to make a change	1	3
Personal life-related events	9	14	Student-related beliefs	9	23	Parent-related beliefs	1	1
Work-related events	8	21	Values about work	8	19
Experiences with school leadership	7	10	Experiences with students	8	11

Table 4. Five highest factors intensifying perception of external pressure by number of interviews coded (n = 13)

Past	No. of interviews coded	References	Present	No. of interviews coded	References	Future	No. of interviews coded	References
Experiences with parents	9	19	Parent-related beliefs	7	19	Doubts about own skills	4	6
Personal life-related events	7	10	Work-related beliefs	6	11	Lack of resources	1	2
Teaching-related experiences	6	10	Emotional overload	5	10	Work-related beliefs	1	1
Lack of pedagogical knowledge	5	10	Doubts about own skills	5	8	Hesitation to meet parents’ expectations	1	1
Lack of resources	5	9	Lack of resources	4	6

Overcoming difficult situations at the beginning of their careers was remembered and remarked on by 10 teachers. Students in Eva’s class, for example, struggled with learning, so she worked extra time to help them:

I decided to give extra classes on Saturday mornings. At first, they didn’t want to participate/ … /but later it was fun for us/ … /After half a year their learning improved/ … /and I didn’t need to worry anymore.

Nine teachers spoke about positive experiences with students and personal life-related events. Eight teachers had significant work-related events that supported their work motivation, and seven teachers had good experiences with school leadership. Emma, for example, was losing the will to work, but the head gave her good support:

Occasionally I went to speak with the head … about problems with a particular class. She told me to wait and promised everything would turn out well. She encouraged me to be patient./ … /She told me to prepare myself and sent me to observe pre-school lessons/ … /In the end of the year she announced that these would be my students.

All the teachers in the ‘Present’ category expressed positive work-related emotions. Twelve more teachers also expressed positive work-related beliefs. Moreover, nine teachers had good student-related beliefs. Values that support autonomous motivation were mentioned by eight teachers. Good experiences with students were mentioned by eight teachers. Olivia, for example, shared how she explains to students what is important about education:

I always tell them that nobody will remember the grade. Instead, they are more likely to remember the kind of person you were/ … /I want them to understand that caring for each other and paying attention to others are so much more important than grades.

A few teachers talked about their future-related thoughts. Two teachers wanted to contribute to the development of their schools. Ruth, for example, said:

We’re about to start a new project at our school. We invite neighbouring school students too, and we organise a program that lasts all day/ … /We do it to make our school better known but also because children take the lead that day and teach one another.

Another teacher wanted to make a change, and one more teacher had good parent-related beliefs.

Teachers interviewed were willing to share experiences and emotions that have contributed to job stress (see Table 4). Nine teachers, in the ‘Past’ category, spoke about poor experiences with parents. Natali described her experience with parents who did not accept her decisions and wrote directly to the school head:

The parents were not happy with the grade, and so I explained my decision to them. They still wanted a higher grade and contacted the school head. I explained my decision again but, in the end, I had to change the grade, tell the parents about this. They were still unhappy/ … /and told the head that I don’t know how to communicate.

Seven teachers had negative personal life-related events. Difficult teaching-related experiences were mentioned by six teachers. Five teachers had problems due to a lack of pedagogical knowledge and lack of resources. Sandra, for example, expressed her dissatisfaction with the confusion that ‘top-down’ changes have brought to her work:

When they re-write the curriculum again/ … /I think they should also think about how changes are communicated to teachers./ … /They should train us before they announce the changes so that we would be ready to implement them/ … /The way it happens now is that we are trained after changes are introduced and this creates so much confusion. If I don’t fully understand the benefits of changes, how am I supposed to explain them to the parents?

Seven teachers had negative parent-related beliefs at the time the interviews were conducted. Evelin, for example, feels that parents see teachers as service providers:

They look at teachers as service providers. Parents think they can say whatever they want to a teacher/ … /I don’t think it’s right that people think they can say just about anything or that everyone thinks they can tell teachers what to do.

Six teachers had poor work-related beliefs, and five teachers spoke about emotional overload. Five more teachers had doubts about their skills, and four teachers expressed their continuous dissatisfaction with a lack of resources.

Looking to the future, teachers spoke more about pressure-intensifying factors than supportive factors. Four teachers were concerned about the adequacy of their skills in the schools of the future. Helen, for example, expressed her concern:

I’ve had the same students for four years but I don’t know what the next intake of students will be like. I need to be prepared for anything. So many children have special educational needs these days, the children have such different learning capabilities./ … /It’s scary, the unknown is always scary.

One teacher was pessimistic about resources, one spoke about poor work-related beliefs, and one teacher was unsure about being able to meet parents’ expectations.

Discussion

The neoliberal movement and the restructure of education it has engendered (Goodson 2010) has resulted in the recognition of teaching as one of the most stressful of all professions (Hakanen, Bakker, and Schaufeli 2006). Teacher retention is recognised internationally as a problem (OECD 2005). This study acknowledges the issue of increased pressure on teachers’ work. As autonomous motivation has been found to minimise the effects of job stressors from external sources (cf. Trépanier, Fernet, and Austin 2013), the issue was addressed by identifying external factors that cause pressure and exploring factors that may sustain autonomous motivation throughout a teaching career. A questionnaire and follow-up interviews were conducted. An overview of teacher motivation was made, followed by the identification of a range of reasons for teachers entering the profession and remaining in the profession, and whether they have thought about leaving. An overview was created of how teachers with different motivations perceived increases in external sources of pressure. Finally, there was an in-depth exploration of a range of important factors that have influenced teachers’ work motivation.

Across the four motivation groups, teachers reported autonomous motivation supporting factors more than controlling factors, except in the controlling motivational group. This finding concurs with a previous finding that primary teachers are generally satisfied with their work (Perrachione, Rosser, and Petersen 2008). A more detailed analysis of the interviews revealed that differences in motivation could be caused by work as well as personal life-related factors. For example, autonomy-supportive environments foster teachers’ job satisfaction (Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2015). Autonomy-supportive environments might explain why teachers in the shifting to autonomous group had remained in the profession – these are teachers who entered teaching due to a combination of motives but have remained in teaching because of an intrinsic motive. Nevertheless, almost half of the teachers in the shifting to autonomous group have thought about leaving the profession.

Controlling environments and continuous dissatisfaction can, on the other hand, shift teachers towards controlling motivation (Deci and Ryan 2000). This may have been the reason for a shift by teachers in the declining autonomous group. Teachers in this group had an intrinsic goal to enter and remain in the profession, and yet, all of them had thought about leaving it. Likewise, over two-thirds of teachers in the controlling motivational group had thought about leaving the profession. This trend presents a problem to the teaching profession as a whole. Teachers whose motivation is declining or controlled face a higher risk of burnout (Van Den Broeck et al. 2011), and they may eventually decide to leave (cf. OECD 2005).

All the participants in the study, regardless of motivational orientation, perceived an increase in external pressure for reasons that stem from the effects of neoliberally inspired educational changes (cf. Goodson 2010). Parents were recognised as one of the sources from which external pressure has greatly increased; this result could reflect a demand for teachers to meet the high expectations set by society (cf. Timoštšuk, Ugaste, and Mets-Alunurm 2018). National policies and regulations introduced as part of neoliberal reforms were also recognised as a source of high pressure, particularly the impact of an externally imposed curriculum and a loss of voice (Goodson 2014; Humphreys 2017). The final source of high pressure arose from students. High expectations of learning outcomes have developed at the same time as classrooms have become more diverse (Apple 2009): not all students can meet the new standards without additional support. Thus, there may be more disengaged students whom teachers perceive as disruptive (cf. Bakker et al. 2007; Humphreys 2017). Similar to results of previous studies, we found that teachers whose motivation is declining or controlling are more vulnerable to job stressors such as disruptive students (Fernet and Austin 2014); this can lead to teacher exhaustion (Van Den Broeck et al. 2011) and attendant problems with retention.

Only teachers of the autonomous motivation group rated an intrinsic source – demands on me as a professional – as a greatly increased source of pressure, indicating a high level of commitment. Previous studies have found that autonomous work motivation means higher engagement and commitment (Deci and Ryan 2014). This may explain why teachers in the autonomous motivation group of our study have such high standards of professional development. The high standards associated with autonomous motivation can result in more efficient ways to manage external pressure (Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2017): teachers who experience autonomous motivation are more likely to take the initiative and are motivated to make important work-related decisions (Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2017). Finally, it is also likely that teachers with autonomous motivation provide support to their students for autonomous learning. Other studies have shown that this encouragement of autonomy in students increases teachers’ sense of personal accomplishment and reduces emotional exhaustion from teaching (Roth et al. 2007).

In their interviews, teachers emphasised support at the beginning of their career more than experiences of intensifying pressure and indicated that they had found support for their autonomous motivation from various sources. Positive outcomes, such as overcoming difficult situations, were crucial for some teachers in determining whether or not they would remain in teaching. Teachers such as Eva (who, of her own volition, gave her students additional weekend lessons) who made choices and received endorsement, draw benefit from the sense of autonomy and competence engendered and the experience of increased work satisfaction (cf. Roth et al. 2007). This concurs with the findings of other studies that the first five years of teaching are the most important in establishing whether beginning teachers stay in or leave the profession (cf. Ingersoll 2012).

All of the teachers who attended interviews experienced positive work-related emotions. This may be due to personal, intrinsic factors but may also be due to environmental factors such as clearly communicated expectations, autonomy, and collegial support (Brill and McCartney 2008). Olivia’s example illustrates that she is most likely experiencing autonomous work motivation, as she is not focusing on the external outcomes such as grades (cf. Roth et al. 2007). Instead, Olivia emphasised positive interpersonal relationships which can address the need for relatedness (Deci and Ryan 2002).

Teachers spoke less about their thoughts for the future. Nevertheless, they expressed a desire to contribute to improvements at their school. Having the opportunity to make one’s work meaningful by participating in the development of the life of the school as well as the ability to choose what is best for individual students contributes to job satisfaction and thus increases teachers’ autonomous work motivation (cf. Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2015).

The interviews showed that continuous dissatisfaction increases stress that can lead to a decline in work motivation (cf. Fernet and Austin 2014). Dissatisfaction with parent-related aspects was among the most mentioned experiences in all the timelines – past, present, future – of the study. This reflected the questionnaire results of the study, where teachers also rated parents as the source of pressure most on the increase. The example of Natali illustrates a situation where grades are more important to parents than the teacher’s professional decision. Such conflicted situations contribute to job stress (cf. Ganster and Perrewé 2011) and can lower work motivation (Fernet et al. 2012).

Teachers spoke less about ongoing intensifying factors than the factors of the ‘past’, but, once again, parent-related experiences were mentioned most. Teachers expressed their disappointment at the lack of respect that parents show to teachers. A previous study (cf. Leiter and Maslach 2000) showed that recognition of a teacher’s sense of vocation is a vital part of teachers’ work motivation; thus, a lack of recognition is a major source of stress (Travers and Cooper 1996). Evelin’s observation that fewer people acknowledge teachers as professionals reflects a trend encouraged by neoliberal ideas and policy (cf. Humphreys 2017).

In response to ‘future’ factors, teachers mentioned intensifying factors more. Most teachers doubted their if skills were sufficient to deal with work in the schools of the future. The example of Helen refers to pressure brought on by a fear of being unprepared and unable to cope with a new situation (cf. Deci and Ryan 2000). Helen’s experience also indicates the high standard she sets for herself as a teacher – she wants to be able to meet every single student’s needs and she is not confident that she would be able to do so.

Conclusions

This study contributes to the understanding of teachers’ motivation amid an increase in external pressure in education. All teachers in our study reported similar perceptions of increased external pressure. Teachers’ lived experiences of their daily work were examined and significant core factors that have helped them to cope with external pressure were identified. The study also indicated factors that can intensify pressure. The sample, however, was voluntary, and the size was relatively small, so the results of interviews should not be generalised but considered as examples of important experiences.

Interviews were used to recall the important experiences of teachers in order to give the participants the opportunity to review the experiences of their working lives. Our first finding was that the retelling of personal experiences could suggest possible methods, based on experiences that teachers emphasised the most, to help teachers reinforce the positive aspects of their work. Experiences pinpointed included past experiences with students and colleagues that have contributed to positive work-related emotions in the present. Our second finding was an identification of persistent factors that can intensify the perception of external pressure, e.g. skills, resources, and parent-related issues. This second finding indicates a need for better coping strategies to support teachers. Our third finding may explain why some teachers had maintained autonomous work motivation, and were able, for example, to overcome difficult situations or wanted to participate in the future development of their school. These findings indicate that autonomous motivation and teacher initiative should be fostered. Further research based on a large sample including the management of emotions at work could add valuable information for the field.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This study was supported by the project IUT18-2 “Teachers' professionality and professionalism in changing context” funded by the Estonian Research Council and by the project A/1116 “Relationships Between Teaching Practices, Pupils Learning Outcomes and Motivation in the First Stage of Primary School” funded by Tallinn University, Estonia. 

Notes on contributors

Anne-Mai Näkk

Anne-Mai Näkk is a junior research fellow and a supervisor of teaching practicums in the School of Educational Sciences at Tallinn University. Her research interests involve basic school pedagogy, teachers’ classroom practices, and students’ learning outcomes.

Inge Timoštšuk

Inge Timoštšuk is an Associate Professor of Pre-School and Primary Didactics in the School of Educational Sciences at Tallinn University. She has extensive teaching experience in university and in school as well as in extracurricular education. Her research has been focused on teachers’ professional development and on science teaching.

Appendix

Questionnaire items to explore teachers’ work motivation and perceptions of increased pressure

Motivation

• 1. Why did you choose teaching? Please mark the importance of following reasons.

  • It was my vocation.

  • It was due to an occurrence of certain circumstances.

  • It was the wish of someone else or external pressure that I did not want or could not resist.

• 2. Please choose which of the aforementioned reasons was most important to you.

• 3. Why do you remain in teaching? Please mark the importance of following reasons.

  • I like teachers’ work.

  • I can do what I like either during or alongside teaching.

  • Teaching has non-work-related advantages.

  • I have no choice to leave teaching.

• 4. Please choose which of the aforementioned reasons was most important to you.

• 5. Have you thought about leaving the profession? Yes No

External pressure

• 6. How significantly have external pressures increased on teachers’ work during your working time? Mark the suitable answer.

• 1 – have significantly decreased

  2 – have somewhat decreased

  3 – have not significantly changed

  4 – have somewhat increased

  5 – have significantly increased

• 7. If you find that external pressure has changed, then please evaluate the significance of the following factors regarding the change.

  • National educational politics and regulations (curriculum, professional standard, other regulations)

  • County-level regulations (department of education and their inspectors etc.)

  • Local area (town, parish) educational officials’ activities

  • School administration/leadership

  • Colleagues

  • Parents

  • Students

  • My demands on myself as a professional