Re-Arabizing Israeli Food Culture

Abstract

This paper examines the role Arab-Palestinian food plays in the construction of Israeli national identity and food culture. In particular, it sets out to understand the recent willingness in Jewish-Israeli society to acknowledge Arab, and to a lesser extent Arab-Palestinian, culture and food. This new phenomenon has resulted in the re-Arabization of Israeli food culture. For the first time Arab and Arab-Palestinian food is acknowledged, written about and celebrated. This follows a historically longer process in which the construction of Israeli identity and food culture was based on adaptation and imitation, leading to appropriation and nationalization of Arab-Palestinian food culture.

Keywords:

• Israel
• Arab
• Palestine
• food culture
• national identity
• Zionism

Notes

1. Yonatan Mendel and Ronald Ranta, “Consuming Palestine: Palestine and Palestinians in Israeli Food Culture.” Ethnicities 14(3): 412–435 (2014).

2. Ibid.

3. Donna Gabaccia, We Are What We Eat (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 8.

4. Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Penguin Books, 1985), 13.

5. Peter Scholliers, “Meals, Food Narratives, and Sentiments of Belonging in Past and Present.” In Peter Scholliers, ed, Food, Drink and Identity: Cooking, Eating and Drinking in Europe Since the Middle Ages (Oxford: Berg, 2001), 1–22.

6. Catherine Palmer, “From Theory to Practice: Experiencing the Nation in Everyday Life.” Journal of Material Culture 3: 175–199 (1998).

7. Michael Billig, Banal Nationalism (London: Sage, 1995).

8. Uma Narayan, “Eating Cultures: Incorporation, Identity and Indian Food.” Social Identities 1(1): 63–86

(1995).

9. Arjun Appadurai, “How to Make National Cuisine: Cookbooks in Contemporary India.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 30(1): 3–24 (1988).

10. David Bell and Gill Valentine, Consuming Geographies: We Are Where We Eat (New York: Routledge, 1997), 168.

11. See, for example: Charlotte Crew, “Gustatory Redemption? Colonial Appetites, Historical Tales and the Contemporary Consumption of Australian Native Foods.” International Journal of Critical Indigenous Studies 5(2): 13–24 (2012); and Carolyn Morris, “Kai or Kiwi? Maori and ‘Kiwi’ cookbooks, and the Struggle for the Field of New Zealand Cuisine.” Journal of Sociology 49(2–3): 210–223 (2013).

12. See, for example: Yael Raviv, “National Identity on a Plate.” Israel-Palestine Journal of Economics, Politics and Culture 8(9): 164–172 (2002); Yael Raviv, Recipe for a Nation: Cuisine, Jewish Nationalism, and the Israeli State (PhD diss: New York University, 2002); and Yael Raviv, “Falafel: A National Icon.” Gastronomica: Journal of Food and Culture 3(3): 20–25 (2003).

13. It is important to note that prickly pears and Jaffa oranges were, and still are, also symbols of Palestine and Palestinian national identity. See, for example, Nasser Abufarha, “Land of Symbols: Cactus, Poppies, Orange and Olive Trees in Palestine Identities.” Global Studies in Culture and Power 15(3): 343–368 (2008).

14. Tim J. Semmerling, Israeli & Palestinian Postcards: Presentations of National Self (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004).

15. What Most Symbolises Israel: Yitzhak Rabin, Menachem Begin, the Wailing Wall, Shlomo Artzi or Cottage Cheese? (April, 2012) [in Hebrew], www.nrg.co.il/online/1/ART2/359/714.html (accessed 10 June 2014).

16. For early Zionist labor regulation see: Gersho Shafir, Land, Labour and the Origins of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, 1882–1914 (London: University of California Press, 1996); on the Hebrew Banana see, Raviv, Recipe for a Nation.

17. See, for example, the symbols (or coat of arms) of Afula, Givatayim, Hadera, Hod Hasharon, Petah Tikva, and Rishon LeZion.

18. According to the Israel Democracy Institute over 60 percent of Israeli-Jews keep kashrut (Jewish religious dietary laws) at home to varying degrees, and a similar number claim to observe religious regulations regarding food consumption during Jewish holidays: Asher Arain, A Portrait of Israeli Jews: Belief, Observance, and Values of Israeli Jews 2009 (The Israel Democracy Institute and the Avi Chai Israel Foundation) [in Hebrew] http://www.idi.org.il/ (accessed 20 December 2014).

19. See Orit Rozin, “Food, Identity, and Nation-Building in Israel’s Formative Years.” Israel Studies Forum 21(1): 52–80 (2006); and Ofra Tene, Thus You Shall Cook! Readings in Israeli Cookbooks [in Hebrew] (MA thesis: Tel Aviv University, 2002).

20. Erez Komorovsky, Fresh and Simple: Contemporary Israeli Cuisine (Tel Aviv: Safrot Achshav, 2001).

21. Tadmor: The Central School for Hospitality, The Flavours of Israel [in Hebrew] (Hertzelia: Mitzad Mat‘ami Yisrael, 1963).

22. See, for example: Moli Bar-David, Folkloric Cookbook: Delights for Israeli Festivals [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Bar-David, 1963); Aviva Goldman, The Land of Milk and Honey [in Hebrew] (Givatayim: Masada, 1978); and Pascal Peretz-Rubin, Israel Flavours [in Hebrew] (Ramat Gan: Ruth Sirkis, 1987).

23. It is important to note that, in recent years, a number of Jewish-Israeli writers have discussed Israeli-Jewish and Arab-Palestinian food relations and have mentioned the appropriation and transformation of specific dishes, in particular hummus and falafel. However, these writers have stopped short of exploring the overall role Arab-Palestinian food culture played in the construction of a modern Jewish-Israeli food culture. Interview with Liora Gvion (Tel Aviv: 19 May 2014) and Dafna Hirsch (Tel Aviv: 16 May 2014). See, for example: Raviv, Recipe for a Nation; Liora Gvion, Beyond Hummus and Falafel: Social and Political Aspects of Palestinian Food in Israel (London: University of California Press., 2012); Dafna Hirsch “Hummus is Best When it is Fresh and Made by Arabs: The Gourmetization of Hummus in Israel and the Return of the Repressed Arab.” American Ethnologist 38(4): 617–630 (2011); and Dafna Hirsch and Ofra Tene “Hummus: The Making of an Israeli Culinary Cult” Journal of Consumer Culture 13(1): 25–45 (2013).

24. See, for example: Erna Meyer, How to Cook in Palestine [in Hebrew and German] (Tel Aviv: WIZO, 1937); Lilian Cornfled, What to Cook with the Austerity Portions [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Dov Gutman Press, 1949); Bar-David, Folkloric Cookbook; Goldman, The Land of Milk and Honey; Ruth Sirkis, Popular Food from Israel (Tel Aviv: Zmora Bitan Modan-Publishers, 1975); and Peretz-Rubin, Israel Flavours.

25. See, for example, Tamar Zimenavoda, From Gandmother’s Kitchen: Eretz Yisrael Dishes—New and Old [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Milo, 1981).

26. See, for example, Meir Shalev, “The Hummus is Ours” Yedioth Aharonoth: Opinion section [in Hebrew] January 12, 2001.

27. See, for example, Nissim Krispil, Spice: Taste of Nature (Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defence, 2007).

28. Tiki Golan, “What is the Most Israeli Dish?” [in Hebrew] ‘Akhbar Ha-‘Ir, 5 May, 2008.

29. Mendel and Ranta, “Consuming Palestine.”

30. Oz Almog, The Sabra: The Creation of the New Jew (Berkley: University of California Press, 2000), 78–80.

31. Claduia Roden, The Book of Jewish Food: An Odyssey from Samarkand and Vilna to the Present Day (London: Penguin, 1999), 175.

32. See, for example, the British experience in India, Australia and Canada, and the Spanish experience in Mexico and southern USA: Narayan, “Eating Cultures”; Crew, “Gustatory Redemption”; Jeffrey M. Pilcher, Que Vivan Los Tamales! Food and the Making of Mexican Identity (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998); and Gabaccia, We Are What We Eat.

33. Interview with Gvion; interview with Hirsch.

34. For a discussion on the impact of Arab-Palestinians on Israeli-Jeiwsh culture and identity see, Yonatan Mendel and Ronald Ranta Palestinian Culture in the Construction of Israeli National Identity (Farnham: Ashgate, forthcoming, 2016).

35. Shafir, Land, Labour and the Origins of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict.

36. Interview with Hirsch.

37. Deborah S. Bernstein, “Contested Contact: Proximity and Social Control in pre-1948 Jaffa and Tel-Aviv.” In Daniel Monterescu and Dan Rabinowitz, eds., Mixed Towns, Trapped Communities, Historical Narratives, Spatial Dynamics, Gender Relations and Cultural Encounters in Palestinian-Israeli Towns (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012), 215–241.

38. Quoted from: Jodi Kantor, “A History of the Mideast in the Humble Chickpea.” New York Times: food section, 10 July, 2002.

39. ^, Hirsch, “Hummus is Best When it is Fresh and Made by Arabs.”

40. A similar account of fascination and appropriation leading to nationalisation is also provided by Raviv with regards to Falafel, see: Raviv, “Falafel: A National Icon.”

41. Janna Gur, Fresh Flavours From Israel (Tel Aviv: Al Hashulchan Gastronomic Media, 2008).

42. HowtobeIsraeli (February, 2009) “Make Israeli Salad” http://howtobeisraeli.blogspot.ca/2009/02/lesson-2-make-israeli-salad.html (accessed 10 June 2014).

43. See, for example, Amos Oz, A Tale of Love and Darkness [in Hebrew] (Jerusalem: Keter, 2002), 238; and Meir Shalev, Russian Novel [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1988), 128–129.

44. See: Elihu Grant, The Peasantry of Palestine (New York: Pilgrim Press, 1907); E. W. G. Masterman, “Food and its Preparation in Modern Palestine.” The Biblical World 17(6): 407–419 (1901); and Mary E. Rogers, Domestic Life in Palestine (Cincinnati, OH: Poe & Hitchcock, 1865).

45. Rogers, Domestic Life in Palestine.

46. Golan, “What is the Most Israeli Dish?”

47. Hussam Abbas and Nira Rousso, Lamb, Mint and Pine-Nuts: The Flavours of the Israeli-Arab Cuisine [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Yedioth Aharonot, 2006).

48. BBC (2008) “Cooking in the Danger Zone: Israel and Palestinian Territories.” http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/30_03_08_cooking_in_the_danger_zone_srs_3_israel_palestine_territories.pdf (accessed 10 June 2014).

49. Sharon Shaked, “For Our Independence: An Israeli Food Dictionary” Fresh [in Hebrew] 5 May (2003).

50. Hirsch, “Hummus is Best When it is Fresh and Made by Arabs.”

51. Observation based on witnessing numerous such discussions in Israel.

52. Shooky Galili, “The Land of Hummus and Pita” Ynet 31 May (2007) www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3401347,00.html (accessed 10 June 2014).

53. Saki Knafo, “Sabra’s Quest to Push Hummus Mainstream is About Much More than Chickpeas” Huffington Post, 10 June (2013) http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/10/sabra-hummus_n_3391688.html (accessed 10 June 2014).

54. Hirsch, “Hummus is Best When it is Fresh and Made by Arabs.”

55. Yehuda Litani and Naim Araidi Not by Hummus Alone: Hummus, Olive Oil, References [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Dinur and Modan, 2000).

56. Efrat Adir, “Tzabar Salads opens ‘Nihad the Jordanian’s Hummusia’” Bizportal 16 August (2007) [in Hebrew] http://www1.bizportal.co.il/article/153531 (accessed 10 June 2014).

57. Yael Laor, “The Ten Dishes you Must Taste” Mako 27 September (2012) http://www.mako.co.il/food-restaurants/best/Article-e2536546c860a31006.htm (accessed 10 June 2014); and Alon Tsarfati, “There are Dishes: The Ten Tastiest Dished in Israel” NRG 28 May (2012) http://www.nrg.co.il/online/55/ART2/371/816.html (accessed 10 June 2014).

58. One Jewish-Israeli blogger went as far as claiming—in a derogatory fashion—that Mizrahi restaurants only served kebabs while Arab restaurants served food items and dishes that required a bit more skill than simply using a charcoal grill. See: Yair Bertshpiz, blogpost 9 August (2010) http://cafe.themarker.com/review/1715512/ (accessed 10 June 2014).

59. Ha’aretz: Friday Gallery, “We Took the Okra Home” [in Hebrew] July 19 (2013).

60. Orna Yefet, “The Arab Food Label Baracke is Launched with 4 Million Shekels” Ynet 5 February (2007) http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3361132,00.html (accessed 10 June 2014).

61. See, for example, recent cookbooks on the food of Haifa, Nazareth and Jerusalem: Hila Alpert, There is Place in the Lower city [in Hebrew] (Israel: Lunch Box, 2012); Alinor Rabin, Nazareth: A Fascinating Culinary City (Jerusalem: Keter, 2012); and Rina Valero, Delights of Jerusalem [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Yedioth Aharonot, 2002).

62. See, for example: Miriam Hinnawi, Arab Cuisine From the Galilee [in Hebrew] (Jerusalem: Academon, 2006); Nawal Abu-Ghosh, The Arab-Israeli Cuisine [in Hebrew] (Jerusalem: Keter, 2006); and Abbas and Rousso, Lamb, Mint and Pine-Nuts.

63. Yotam Ottolenghi and Sami Tamimi, Jerusalem (London: Ebury, 2012), which has been since translated into Hebrew and is available in most Israeli Hebrew bookstores.

64. Gvion, Beyond Hummus and Falafel.

65. Roy Regev, “Battle of Knives is like a Football Tournament” NRG 28 November (2008) [in Hebrew] http://www.nrg.co.il/online/55/ART1/817/469.html (accessed 10 June 2014).

66. Nati Tucker, “MasterChef Israel Finale Smashes TV Rating Records” Ha’aretz 30 January (2013) [in Hebrew].

http://www.haaretz.com/culture/masterchef-israel-finale-smashes-tv-rating-records.premium-1.500309 (accessed 10 June 2014); and Ran Boker, “Nof ‘Atamana-Isma‘il won the Finals of Master Chef” Ynet 5 April (2014) [in Hebrew] http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-4507035,00.html (accessed 10 June 2014).

67. Hila Alpert, “The Scenery of my Childhood” Israel Hayom 4 April (2014) [in Hebrew] http://www.israelhayom.co.il/article/171817 (accessed 10 June 2014).

68. Interview with Gvion; interview with and Hirsch. See also: Gvion, Beyond Hummus and Falafel; and Hirsch, “Hummus is Best When it is Fresh and Made by Arabs.”

69. L. M. Heldke, Exotic Appetites: Ruminations of a Food Adventurer (New York: Routledge, 2003).

70. See, for example: Ali Abunimah, “Did you Know? Palestine’s Knafeh is now ‘Israeli’ too?” 3 June (2014) http://electronicintifada.net/blogs/ali-abunimah/did-you-know-palestines-knafeh-now-israeli-too (accessed 10 June 2014); and Shiri Katz, “The Knafhe is (Not Always) Sweet” Timeout Tel Aviv 24 November (2013) [in Hebrew]. Additionally, one could also point out the recent adoption of Arab-Palestinian food items that are seen as healthy by Jewish-Israeli chefs, such as hubeisa and freekeh (smoked green wheat), as another example.

71. See, for example: Ian Cook and Philip Crang, “The World on a Plate: Culinary Culture, Displacement and Geographical Knowldges.” Journal of Material Culture 1(2): 131–153 (1996); and Ian Cook, Phillip Crang and Mark Thorpe, “Biographies and Geographies: Consumer Understanding of the Origins of Foods.” British Food Journal 100(3): 162–167 (1998).

72. McCann Erickson, “Tzabar—‘Nihad the Jordanian’s Hummus’” (application for Israel’s “Effie Awards” in marketing and advertisement) [in Hebrew] (2008) www.hamil.co.il/upload/zabar.doc (accessed 10 June 2014).

73. See, for example, recent books on Lebanese and Iraqi food, which also emphasise Jewish Diaspora cooking: Gracia Grego, Lebanese Cooking (Israel: Kinneret, Zmora-Bitan, Dvir, 2008); and Shoshi Oren and Loren Ravid, Eshtidach [in Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Lunch Box, 2012).

74. Almog Behar, “Mahmoud Darwish: Poetry’s State of Siege” Journal of Levantine Studies 1: 93 (2011).

75. See, for example: Mirav Kristal, “If Its Turkish—I Won’t Buy” [in Hebrew] Ynet 2 June (2010) www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3897952,00.html (accessed 10 June 2014).

76. Uri Ram, The Globalization of Israel: McWorld in Tel Aviv, Jihad in Jerusalem (Abingdon: Routledge, 2008).