Teaching social influence: Resources and exercises from the field of communication

Abstract

Effective teachers know that when students are engaged in active learning, they learn more, retain it longer, apply it better, and continue to learn (Weimer, 1993). One way to promote such learning is through the use of innovative classroom activities that lead students to understand, interpret, and/or apply information. In that spirit, educators in the field of communication have developed an array of activities and demonstrations for promoting active learning in students of social influence. To facilitate the use of such activities, this article uses an annotated bibliography format to review over 30 published articles designed by communication teachers to help instructors, especially new instructors, teach their students persuasion principles and practices including the Extended Parallel Process Model, Inoculation Theory, persuasive language, Monroe's Motivated Sequence, persuasive campaigns, credibility, deception, audience analysis and adaptation, power, and compliance gaining.

In 9 of the last 10 years, we have directed a course at the annual meeting of the National Communication Association called Teaching the Persuasion, Social Influence, and/or Compliance Gaining Course at the University Level. Typically, those who attend our course represent the diversity of approaches to teaching social influence in the field of communication. Some, for instance, are preparing to teach persuasive speaking courses. Others are looking to teach their first persuasion courses. Still others, who have taught from traditional rhetorical perspectives, are looking to incorporate social scientific theories or newer research on influence in interpersonal contexts into their courses. Whatever their goals or backgrounds, however, all have something in common: they are all eager to get their hands on exercises and demonstrations for teaching persuasion and for actively involving their students in the process of learning. Unfortunately, such material is often difficult to access. With that in mind, the purpose of this article is to review over 30 published articles designed by educators in the field of communication for teaching social influence. The article not only covers material that should primarily interest those teaching persuasive public address (e.g., Monroe's Motivated Sequence), but also principles and theories that apply to other persuasive contexts (e.g., the Extended Parallel Process Model, resistance to persuasion, powerful/powerless language, credibility, deception, audience analysis, and compliance gaining). To review the articles, we use an annotated bibliography format.

TEACHING SPECIFIC THEORIES OF PERSUASION

Roberto, A. J. (2004). Putting communication theory into practice: The Extended Parallel Process Model. Communication Teacher, 18, 38–43.

The goal of this exercise is to illustrate components of the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM)—which describes how fear appeals function persuasively—and to demonstrate how this model can be used to guide health and disease‐prevention campaigns. After being introduced to key concepts from the theory (e.g., perceived threat, fear and danger control, perceived efficacy), students watch videos and read brochures on gun safety and hepatitis B. In addition to identifying concepts from the model that appear in the stimulus materials, students analyze the materials and discuss their effectiveness. Instructions for debriefing students and for obtaining the stimulus videos and brochures are provided. (Time to complete: 20 to 45 minutes depending on which stimulus materials are used.)

Ross, C. (1995). Vaccinating against inoculations: McGuire's theory as an experiential learning activity. Speech Communication Teacher, 9, 6–7.

This exercise is designed to teach students about elements of McGuire's Inoculation Theory, which suggests that forewarning listeners about an opponent's future counterattacks increases resistance to those attacks. The activity gets groups of students to engage in refutational preemption by having them brainstorm about specific defenses and counterarguments they can use to protect themselves from political commercials, advertisements, and editorials that are presented by the instructor. Afterwards, the students realize they have cooperated in a persuasive practice while simultaneously opposing it. The author suggests points for discussion. A potential limitation of this exercise is that it doesn't present students with a “pure” inoculation stimulus. That is, students aren't actually presented with a mild dose of an opposing message. Pfau and Szabo (2004) indicate that threat is the trigger that motivates a person to increase his or her defenses. At a conceptual level, then, having students pretend that their existing beliefs will be challenged may still illustrate the motivational effect of a perceived threat. (Time to complete: Approximately one class session.)

PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE

Johnson, C. E. (1987). An introduction to powerful and powerless talk in the classroom. Communication Education, 36, 167–172.

The purpose of this exercise is to build awareness of powerful and powerless speech, to demonstrate the impact of such speech on the evaluation of sources and effectiveness of messages, and to eliminate the use of powerless speech from students' communication. Students listen to speakers using powerful and powerless language (e.g., language containing or not containing hesitations, tag questions, hedges, and so forth) and rate dimensions of the speakers' credibility. Afterwards, students are presented with empirical findings on the types and effects of powerless language (a summary is provided in the article) and discuss their perceptions of the speakers. Finally, students prepare presentations and are evaluated in terms of their own use of powerful/powerless language. (Time to complete: Viewing, rating, and discussing speakers = 30 minutes; presentations = depends on number of students.)

Pendleton, S. C. (1999). Using figurative language in persuasive speeches. Speech Communication Teacher, 13, 5–7.

The goal of this exercise is to help students recognize the power of figurative language and to teach them how to create speeches using such language. The author provides a list of persuasive forms of figurative speech (e.g., metaphor) for students to learn. Students then listen to clips of speeches (e.g., Martin Luther King's “I Have a Dream” or John F. Kennedy's inaugural address) and try to identify specific uses of figurative language by the speakers. Finally, students create speeches of their own that include figurative language. In addition to providing advice for debriefing students, the author has created a brief quiz that tests students' recognition of the persuasive figures of speech. (Time to complete: Variable.)

Zizik, C. H. (1995). Powerspeak: Avoiding ambiguous language. Speech Communication Teacher, 9, 8–9.

This exercise is designed to make students aware of the persuasive power of clear and precise language. The author briefly discusses how speech becomes more powerful when ambiguity is removed. Students learn the pitfalls of ambiguous language by completing the Abstraction Language Questionnaire (provided in the article) and discussing it. The questionnaire asks students to respond to ambiguous phrases such as “a good salary,” “an old book,” and “a long commute.” Afterwards, by comparing answers, a variety of interpretations are revealed, illustrating the potential problems associated with using ambiguous language in persuasive messages. (Time to complete: 30 minutes.)

MONROE'S MOTIVATED SEQUENCE

Monroe's Motivated Sequence (MMS) (see McKerrow, Monroe, Ehninger, & Gronbeck, 2003) is a “blueprint” for designing persuasive presentations, and is a staple in public‐speaking and persuasive‐speaking textbooks and courses in the field of communication. The sequence lists five steps (attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action) and has applications not only in public address, but also in sales and advertising (see Rogers, 2007).

Dewis, R. (1992). PSAs: Persuasive speaking in a minute. Speech Communication Teacher, 7, 10–11.

The purpose of this exercise is to help students become familiar with the five steps of Monroe's Motivated Sequence (MMS) by giving them practice using it. The author describes an assignment in which students are asked to develop Public Service Announcements on topics of the students' choice (e.g., banning candy vending machines from public school property). In preparing the announcements, students write one sentence for each of the five steps of the MMS. The author describes a procedure for filming the presentations and for discussing them. (Time to complete: Approximately two class sessions.)

McDermott, V. M. (2004). Using motivated sequence in persuasive speaking: The speech for charity. Communication Teacher, 18, 13–14.

The goal of this exercise is to get students involved on an emotional and academic level by having them apply Monroe's Motivated Sequence (MMS) while trying to persuade an audience to donate to a charitable organization. It also teaches students how to persuade listeners who might have different agendas. Each student donates $3–$5 to a class pool. Then, applying MMS, each student writes and delivers a persuasive speech that seeks a donation for a charity chosen by the student. The class votes for the most convincing speech and the pool of money is donated to the winner's charity. The author provides debriefing questions and a favorable appraisal of how the activity has worked for her in the past. (Time to complete: Approximately two class sessions depending on the number of students in class.)

	Nelson, L. A. (1995). Sell us Monroe's Motivated Sequence. Speech Communication Teacher, 9, 13.
	Norris, K. (1992). The speech shopping channel. Speech Communication Teacher, 6, 16.

These two articles present similar activities with the goal of acquainting students with Monroe's Motivated Sequence (MMS) in fun and creative ways. In both activities, students attempt to sell a product following the steps of MMS. While Nelson brings to class a paper bag filled with small items (e.g., crayon, sponge, candle), has students select an item from the bag and create a commercial, Norris asks students to create their own product and take the role of host or hostess of “The Speech Shopping Channel” to sell their product. (Time to complete: Approximately one class session depending on the number of students in class.)

USING, IDENTIFYING, AND ANALYZING LOGICAL AND EMOTIONAL APPEALS

Jackson, L. D. (2002). Designing a health communication campaign: A project for advanced undergraduate students. Communication Teacher, 16, 10–12.

The object of the project described in this article is to help students apply theoretical concepts while developing a health campaign in one of several areas (e.g., lifestyle wellness, preventing substance abuse, promoting the practice of safe sex). After discussing relevant theories (e.g., fear appeals, inoculation, Elaboration Likelihood Model), students design a campaign to persuade people to be healthy. The process requires students to define a problem and objectives, choose appropriate influence channels, create materials and messages, implement plans, and evaluate the campaigns. The author provides suggestions for accompanying written and oral assignments and for debriefing. (Time required: Four weeks inside and outside of class.)

Larson, C. U. (1978). “Three buys”—A simulation for teaching persuasive campaigns. Communication Education, 27, 60–63.

The objectives of this project are to simulate real‐world experience in planning and executing a persuasive campaign, to heighten awareness of media effects and appropriateness, to encourage in‐depth audience analysis, and to engage students in production techniques involved in print, audio, and audio‐visual messages. Students form groups, which become campaign‐planning agencies that market a product. The marketing consists of one print (e.g., posters, newspaper advertisements, leaflets), one audio (e.g., radio spots or p.a. system announcements), and one audio‐visual message (e.g., commercials), each presented to student customers, who award bogus money to the best presentations. Grading is done on the basis of money earned. Based on feedback from student customers, groups adapt future presentations. The author suggests lecture topics to accompany the simulation (e.g., market segmentation, the use of color and storyboards) and offers a favorable appraisal of the project based on his experience. Instructors might want to consider amending this exercise to include non‐traditional forms of persuasion as well, such as word‐of‐mouth (WOM) or “buzz” marketing, and on‐line influence (email, blogs, banner ads, pop‐ups) (Time required: Multiple class sessions throughout the term.)

Miller, V. R. (2004). Show and tell persuasion. Communication Teacher, 18, 28–30.

The goal of this exercise is to show students how to formulate a persuasive argument, think carefully about arguments before they are made, consider the basis of their opinions, select compelling appeals, and consider possible counter‐arguments. Students are placed into groups and presented with the task of creating a 1–2‐minute speech persuading network executives not to cancel a favorite television show. The author provides step‐by‐step instructions necessary for completing the assignment. For example, after stating three opinions in favor of their position, students support each with two reasons and then identify which reasons appeal to “the mind” and which appeal to emotion. Moreover, students select their strongest arguments and address opposing opinions before presenting their speeches. The author provides tips for debriefing. (Time required: One class session.)

Powell, K. A. (1994). Debate as the key to teaching persuasion skills. Speech Communication Teacher, 9, 10–11.

The author's goal is to teach students the importance of using evidence and reasoning to support persuasive claims. The exercise requires students to form opposing groups, choose a controversial topic, write a proposition statement supporting their side, and research evidence. The teams then debate. The author provides guidelines for structuring and timing the debate. (Time required: Variable depending on number of students.)

Stevens, B. (2005). The car accident: An exercise in persuasive writing. Communication Teacher, 19, 62–67.

The goal of this exercise is to teach students to use evidence, logical writing, audience analysis, and the application of theory to argue persuasively. First, students are taught about Toulmin's principles of argument (e.g., claim, data/grounds, warrant) and about Aristotle's specific types of appeals (ethos, logos, pathos). Next, they are presented with a fictitious case involving a wrecked car (provided in the article). Finally, they are asked to write letters challenging the insurance company settlement while using Toulmin's and Aristotle's principles. The author offers suggestions for debriefing. (Time required: One class period for lecture and one for discussion of letters.)

CREDIBILITY AND DECEPTION

Barton, M. H., & Turman, P. D. (2003). Image, public speaking, and the John Rocker Press Conference. Communication Teacher, 17, 7–9.

This exercise is designed to teach students about theories of Apologia (persuasive discourse focusing on image repair) by having them participate in a simulated press conference. The authors cite several readings on image repair that can serve as assigned readings. They also provide parts of a real‐life interview with John Rocker, a major league pitcher who spat on fans during a game. After studying the case, students form groups and act as public relations experts for Rocker. Their task is to prepare a 3–4‐minute presentation that they think would best repair the image of the celebrity. The authors provide debriefing tips and offer a favorable evaluation of the exercise based on their experiences. This exercise could be updated and/or expanded using other public figures who require image restoration, such as Mel Gibson, Martha Stewart, Michael Jackson. (Time required: One or two class sessions.)

Schumer, A. (1992). To tell the truth. Speech Communication Teacher, 7, 4–5.

The purpose of this exercise is to create an awareness of factors that improve or detract from a person's credibility. To participate, students play an in‐class version of the television show “To Tell the Truth.” Specifically, three‐person teams create true and false stories that are presented to other students, who act as interrogators. The discussion that follows focuses on verbal and nonverbal cues that might lead us to suspect others are not being honest. (Time required: One class session.)

The BBC Science Website http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/smiles/index.shtml

This website offers a useful interactive exercise that allows students to practice their deception detection skills. This exercise can be used as a “need step” before discussing nonverbal correlates of deception, or afterward to see if students can apply what they've learned. On the website, an observer is shown 20 images of people smiling. The observer decides if each person is exhibiting a “genuine” or “fake” smile. At the end of the exercise, the observer learns how accurate she or he was. The observer also can verify which smiles were authentic and which were feigned. The exercise works well when completed as a class because students can share their reasons for classifying each of the smiles. A limitation of the exercise is that it involves only facial expressions and, based on the “sending capacity hypothesis,” the face is not the best place to look to detect deception (Ekman & Friesen, 1974). (Time required: 30–40 minutes.)

AUDIENCE ANALYSIS AND ADAPTATION

Bowers, A. A. (1994). When we become they: Teaching audience awareness skills. Speech Communication Teacher, 8, 8–9.

The purpose of the assignments presented in this article is to create awareness in students about how to adapt persuasive messages to specific audiences. The author presents six assignments, each requiring students to create messages with a particular audience in mind. Examples include writing speeches for former presidents, reading to children, and so forth. (Time required: Variable.)

Cammilleri, S. (1995). Creating persuasive commercials. Speech Communication Teacher, 9, 10–11.

The goal of this exercise is to teach students to analyze audiences and to create messages in a way to capture the interest of various audiences. In the activity, students view a commercial targeted at a particular audience. Next, they rewrite the commercial with a different audience in mind. The commercials are videotaped, viewed by the class, and critiqued. (Time required: Two class sessions.)

Downey, S. D. (1988). Audience analysis exercise. Speech Communication Teacher, 2, 1–2.

The goal of this activity is to acquaint students with the need for, the difficulty of, and the skills necessary for analyzing and adapting to audiences. After having students select speech topics, the instructor assigns students a hypothetical audience that would normally have no interest in the topic. The author has several creative suggestions (e.g., persuading auto mechanics about the importance of keeping one's nails manicured, persuading nuns and priests to change a flat tire on a bicycle). The author also provides guidelines for effective audience analysis in the article. Students present speeches and are evaluated (Time required: Two class sessions.)

Fuller, L. K. (1994). Participatory audience analysis: A research technique that teaches about community. Speech Communication Teacher, 8, 9–10.

This activity is designed to teach students not only the importance of audience analysis, but also how to conduct research on a target group in order to adapt more effectively. Students are required to create a presentation with a specific audience in mind (e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous, American Cancer Society, Girl Scouts of America, Parents Without Partners). Students must then research the group to figure out the best way to address it. Presentations may be given in class. (Time required: Variable.)

Neumann, D. (1990). Selecting messages: An exercise in audience analysis. Speech Communication Teacher, 4, 9.

The objective of this exercise is to create an awareness of audience adaptation by involving students in a creative project. In small groups, students are assigned a specific target audience (e.g., upper‐class Republicans who are members of the NRA) and are provided with an assortment of pre‐produced messages (e.g., magazine ads, photos, and so forth). From these materials, students produce a magazine that they believe would appeal to their particular audience. (Time required: One class session.)

Ross, C. (1987). The challenging audience exercise. Speech Communication Teacher, 1, 15–16.

This exercise is designed to help students adapt to hostile audiences. The class identifies several controversial topics (e.g., birth control ads on television, elimination of the tenure system, X‐rated cable television), and students are asked to construct speeches that support the minority viewpoint. In the process, the students develop questionnaires to explore their classmates' attitudes. During speeches, other students act as hecklers. Based on their analysis of the audience, speakers respond to and are evaluated by the class. (Time required: Two class sessions.)

Seiter, J. S., & Gass, R. H. (in press). Teaching students how to analyze and adapt to audiences. Communication Teacher.

The goals of the activities in this article are to teach students the importance of audience analysis and adaptation, provide them opportunities to practice such skills, and demonstrate how much more effective messages are when aimed at a particular audience. First, students are provided a background on variables to consider when analyzing audiences (lecture references are provided). Second, students are shown persuasive artifacts (e.g., magazine advertisements, television commercials) and try to guess the target audience. Finally, the class selects some product or service (e.g. home security systems, vacation packages, attorney services) and is divided into groups. All but one group is secretly given a target audience (e.g., children, teens, disabled persons, undocumented immigrants, sports fanatics) and designs a commercial that is aimed at that audience. After commercials are presented, the rest of the class tries to guess the target audience and comments on the potential effectiveness of the commercial. The authors note that, typically, the group without the target audience is deemed least effective. Suggestions for debriefing are provided. (Time required: One class session.)

Smith, R. E. (2004). Recruit the student: Adapting persuasion to audiences. Communication Teacher, 18, 53–56.

This activity is designed to help students create persuasive strategies based on the characteristics of their audience. Students form groups and pretend to be part of a recruiting committee whose goal is to persuade potential students to enroll at a university. The groups receive two handouts (provided in this article). The first lists activities, opportunities, and assistance offered by the university. The second describes four hypothetical students with various social, financial, and cultural backgrounds who are thinking about attending the university. The groups' task is to use the materials to develop persuasive messages to recruit students. Ideas for debriefing and an appraisal of the activity are provided. (Time required: One class session.)

USING FILMS, TELEVISION, AND MUSIC TO TEACH SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Brigance, L. C. (2002). Persuasion and protest music. Communication Teacher, 16, 7–9.

The goal of this activity is to teach students the functions of persuasive messages through case studies of protest music. First, students are provided background on the nature and functions of protest music (reading and lecture references are provided). Next, students give a presentation in which they play and analyze a protest song. The author provides websites and materials where students can locate songs. Ideas for debriefing and appraisal are provided. (Time to complete: Two class periods.)

Jewel, T. E. (1999). The blockbuster approach: Teaching interpersonal communication with video. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Although this book is aimed more at teaching interpersonal communication topics through the use of film, it recommends several films that illustrate topics related to persuasion. For example, compliance‐gaining strategies (e.g., altruism, liking, debt) are illustrated in The Breakfast Club, The Color Purple, Hannah and Her Sisters, Ordinary People, and Sex, Lies, and Videotape. The types of power (e.g., legitimate, referent, expert) are illustrated in Boys N' the Hood, 12 Angry Men, and Pretty Woman. (Time to complete: Variable.)

May, S. T. (2000). Using Swing Kids to teach theories of persuasion. Communication Teacher, 14, 5–6.

Swing Kids is a film about how three friends cope when members of the Hitler Jugend try to persuade them to join the Nazi cause. The author describes the ways in which the film demonstrates principles from Cognitive Dissonance Theory, Social Judgment Theory, and the Elaboration Likelihood Model. Classroom discussion questions are provided. (Time to complete: Two class periods.)

Meyer, G., & Roberto, A. J. (2005). Influence in action in Catch Me if You Can. Communication Teacher, 29, 23–27.

This article teaches students to identify Cialdini's principles of compliance (e.g., scarcity, social proof, liking) by showing them clips from the film Catch Me if You Can. (Time to complete: Two class periods.)

Proctor, R. F. (1988). Communication in film II: Teaching communication courses using feature films. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Although this book is aimed more at teaching interpersonal communication topics through the use of film, it recommends several films that illustrate topics related to persuasion. For example, principles of deception (e.g., consequences of) are illustrated in clips from Betrayal and Say Anything. The types of power (e.g., legitimate, referent, expert) are illustrated in The Breakfast Club, Breaking Away, Children of a Lesser God, and 12 Angry Men.) (Time to complete: Variable.)

Proctor, R. F. (1993). Using feature films to teach critical thinking: Multiple morals to the stories. Speech Communication Teacher, 3, 11–12.

This article discusses how the films Twelve Angry Men and Roger and Me can be used to teach social influence concepts. The author examines how the films might provoke class discussion that either vindicates or indicts the persuasive tactics used by characters in the movies.

Seiter, J. S., & Gass, R. H. (2005). Using feature films to teach courses in persuasion. The Successful Professor, 4(3), 6–8.

This article discusses the advantages of using feature films to teach persuasion and then lists several films (e.g., It Could Happen to You, Sophie's Choice, Good Will Hunting, Big, Forrest Gump, The Apartment, Schindler's List) that can be used to teach a variety of concepts including cognitive dissonance, verbal aggressiveness, language and persuasion, credibility, conformity, reciprocity, emotional appeals, and others. (Time to complete: Variable.)

Winegarden, A. D., Fuss‐Reineck, M., & Charron, L. J. (1993). Using Star Trek: The Next Generation to teach concepts in persuasion, family communication, and communication ethics. Communication Education, 42, 178–188.

This article discusses how scenes from the popular television show can be used to demonstrate typologies of power. (Time to complete: Variable.)

INSTRUCTOR'S MANUALS

These instructor's manuals, written by communication professors, are full of exercises and tips for teaching social influence. Both accompany texts and are in electronic form.

Larson, C. (2007). Instructor's manual to accompany “Persuasion: Reception and responsibility” (11th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Larson's manual includes specific exercises to support each chapter in his accompanying text (Larson, 2007). Following is a sample of exercises and learning activities from some of the chapters that are illustrative of what is contained in the instructor's manual.

For Chapter 1, Larson recommends that a student report on the national “Doublespeak” award issued annually by the National Council of Teachers of English. For Chapter 3, Larson suggests having students compile a scrapbook of various print ads, or a collection of videotaped television commercials. For Chapter 4, which deals with symbol usage, Larson recommends that instructors have students read the Newsweek feature called “buzzwords” to see what terms are in popular use. For Chapter 5, Larson recommends having students rewrite ads for vacations and travel. Students should focus on a particular aspect of Kenneth Burke's pentad (act, scene, agent, agency, purpose) when designing each ad. For Chapter 7, Larson advises having students send for a transcript from a pubic affairs television show, such as Nightline, and analyze the arguments according to the basic elements of the Toulmin model (claim, grounds, warrant). For Chapter 8, Larson recommends showing re‐runs of older popular family TV shows, such as Leave It to Beaver, Ozzie and Harriet, or My Three Sons. The class can examine the cultural premises and assumptions that applied at the time and compare them with cultural values found in modern‐day family TV shows. For Chapter 12, Larson suggests having students interview persons who were quoted in the newspaper, on the radio, or elsewhere and asked them if they were quoted accurately, in context, and without bias. The manual also includes a bank of test questions.

Wright, P., Seiter, J. S., & Gass, R. H. (2007). Instructor's manual to accompany “Persuasion, social influence, and compliance gaining” (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Longman.

As its title indicates, this manual is designed to accompany Gass and Seiter's (2007) text, however the exercises and learning activities could be incorporated into a class using another text. Below is a brief sampling of some of the exercises and resources found in the instructor's manual.

Chapter 1 features an exercise based on 14 hypothetical scenarios, each embodying an ethical issue related to persuasion. Students are asked to rate and discuss how ethical or unethical they think each strategy is. For Chapter 3, the authors recommend illustrating Cognitive Dissonance Theory by asking students to reflect on The Book of Questions by Gregory Stock (New York, Workman Publishing, 1987). Although the examples are hypothetical, they give students a sense of the psychological angst one experiences when holding contradictory beliefs, or choosing between incompatible alternatives. Some examples of questions are “For someone you loved deeply, would you move to a far away country with little chance of seeing your family again?” “You discover your wonderful one‐year old child is, because of a mix‐up at the hospital, not yours. Would you want to exchange the child to try to correct the mistake?” Chapter 12 contains a variation on the “To Tell the Truth” exercise mentioned earlier (see Schumer, 1992). In this variation, four students are selected to lie or tell the truth about a factual issue (what kind of car they drive) and an affective issue (an extremely embarrassing moment). Two students are told to tell the truth, and two to lie. The remaining students, the observers, must record who they think is lying, state why, and rate their confidence on each guess. Instructions for debriefing the exercise are included.

In Chapter 13, which addresses fear appeals, the authors recommend having students design a “blueprint” for a fear appeal or anxiety‐arousing message centering on a specific public health and/or safety issue. Examples of possible issues include wearing seat belts, practicing safe sex, smoking prevention and/or cessation, appointing a designated driver, saying no to drugs, and so on. Students are asked to create a brief public service announcement containing a fear‐arousing message of 30–60 seconds in length. Chapter 13 also includes an ingratiation exercise in which each student is told that she/he will have 3 minutes of class time “to make other students in the class like you.” Little advice is offered as to how students should go about doing this, which leads to more variation and creativity in their approaches (bringing cookies, telling stories, juggling, etc.). After everyone has had a turn, the winner is decided via secret ballot.

The instructor's manual also contains several dozen useful links to persuasion‐related material on the Web. A few examples of the links include the U.S. National Archives & Records Administration's exhibit of propaganda posters used during World War II; a marketing expert's lists of a variety of slogans used in advertising; James McCroskey's Source Credibility Scale; a summary of eight techniques used by cults to gain psychological control over their members; an overview of inoculation theory; a list of 60 ways kids can say no to drugs; and, related to Kim Witte's Extended Parallel Process Model, a link that shows three health communication fear appeals that vary by threat and efficacy, and a 12‐item scale to assess whether a particular fear appeal will trigger danger control or fear control.