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ABSTRACT
This comparative study examines the historical development of race equality efforts during the 1970s and 1980s in two global cities—Toronto and London—and the role of African Canadian and Black British educators in longstanding school-community partnerships. I characterize the leadership stance of Black educators as boundary spanners and advocacy leaders who bridged diverse communities and educational institutions in order to improve the educational experiences and life chances of Black students in both cities.
Notes
1. Another example of educational activism in New York City in the 1960s and 1970s involved the promotion of language rights and community control by Puerto Rican community-based organizations such as ASPIRA, Bronx United Parents, and the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund (De Jesus & Perez, Citation2009).
2. These demographic shifts included immigration from former British colonies (particularly the English-speaking Caribbean, India, Pakistan, and West Africa) to London in the 1950s and 1960s and Toronto in the late 1960s and 1970s. Immigration patterns were a bit different, but both cities experienced significant immigration from the English-speaking Caribbean. Changing demographics have proved a common catalyst for the development of multicultural and anti-racist policies and programs.
3. Two interviews were conducted via SKYPE with retired London educators who had moved back to the Caribbean.
4. Data on teachers of color in the Toronto schools has not been systematically recorded over time, but Ryan, Pollock, and Antonelli (Citation2009) note they have always lagged far behind the number of students of color in Canadian schools.
5. The Heritage Language program, instituted in 1976, was designed to incorporate the “cultural and linguistic heritage of ethnic groups” in the Toronto schools other than French and English. Black advocates argued successfully that Black Heritage programs should be included under the policy. Forty years later these programs still operate in some schools, although the classes may be offered after regular school hours.
6. Interview with Louis March, ACHA Communications Director, May 3, 2012, Toronto.
7. Interview with Toronto principal, March 3, 2012, Toronto.
8. Interview with Vernon Farrell, May 4, 2012, Toronto.
9. Case and Endicott later served as commissioners on the Ontario Human Rights Commission.
10. Interview with Ansel Wong, July 30, 2011, London.
11. Interview with former race equality advisor, December 12, 2013, London.
12. Interview with Leela Ramdeen, November 15, 2013, Port of Spain, Trinidad (via SKYPE).
13. Farrell, 2012, Toronto.
14. Interview with Black teacher, May 3, 2012, Toronto.
15. Not all Black educators in Toronto and London during this time period could be characterized as institutional activists. As Trevor Carter (Citation1990) noted, “For some people, advocating equal opportunities [became] a method of holding on to a senior job” (p. 59). Some Black school leaders took a color-blind approach because they felt that a focus on racism would be divisive for their predominately White staff (interview with retired Black headteacher, January 27, 2015). Others did not characterize themselves as activists, but quietly worked for change within the system. As one former race equality officer put it, “I never thought of myself as an activist, but I have been active.”
16. Interview with Roxy Harris, June 15, 2009, London.
17. Interview with Bruce Gill, June 4, 2013, London.
18. Ramdeen, 2013, Port of Spain.
19. From a videotaped conversation between Stuart Hall and Len Garrison which was part of Garrison’s anti-racist teacher training materials (ACER, Citation1985b). See also David Gillborn’s (Citation2008) use of this quote to argue for activist scholarship in the academy.
20. Ramdeen, 2013, Port of Spain.
21. Interview with Black administrator, March 3, 2012, Toronto.
22. A recent petition campaign by Birmingham parent–activist Stephanie Pitter for Black history to be taught in all UK schools is another example which garnered 55,000 signatures (Brady, Citation2015).
23. Former race equality officer, 2013, London.
24. A recent U.S. example of this type of school–community coalition is the Ethnic Studies Now! movement in California, where community activists, teachers, university academics, and their school board allies have worked together to pass district-wide amendments supporting ethnic studies curriculum as a high school graduation requirement in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Santa Monica, Sacramento, and El Rancho. In 2015 a bill was introduced in the California assembly, AB 101, which would establish ethnic studies as a high school elective course in every California school district (http://www.ethnicstudiesnow.com/).