Apishapa rock art and Great Basin shamanism: power, souls, and pilgrims

ABSTRACT

The Apishapa archaeological phase in southeast Colorado, USA, was more likely an eastern extension of the Great Basin Desert Culture than a western extension of the Plains Village pattern. For this reason, Archaic Period rock art in the Great Basin and the Apishapa area are remarkably similar. Abstract curvilinear and rectilinear styles in both areas share several motifs and combinations. Because of Apishapa origins, we use Great Basin ethnography to discuss abstract rock art in the lower Apishapa canyon. The Great Basin version of shamanism, especially the interrelated concepts of dynamic power, soul travel, and sacred pilgrimages help to explain many images. Overall, sacred pilgrimages provided the social context for much of the art.

KEYWORDS:

• Apishapa petroglyphs
• Great Basin Desert Culture
• sacred pilgrimages
• shamanism
• southeast Colorado

Acknowledgements

We thank Zane Ede and Sonny and Ann Houghtaling for access to their rock art sites in the Apishapa canyon. Geoff Blundell, Sam Challis, Richard Clemmer-Smith, David Lewis-Williams, Jannie Loubser, David Whitley, and Maria Neves Zedeño commented on the manuscript. Marion Bamford identified the fossil casts, and Larry Loendorf gave permission to redraw the illustration of the Corral site. Wendy Voorvelt prepared the illustrations. Support for this research has come from the South African National Research Foundation and the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Our interpretations do not reflect the opinions of these sponsors or commentators in any way.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Thomas N. Huffman

Thomas N. Huffman received a BA (1966) from the University of Denver, and a Masters (1970) and Doctorate (1974) from the University of Illinois (Champagne). He was Inspector of Monuments for the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (1970 to 1977), and then Professor and Head of Archaeology at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (1977 to 2000). He was later Chair of Archaeology in the School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies (2001 to 2009) and retired as Professor Emeritus. He was originally trained as a Plains archaeologist, but then specialized on the anthropological archaeology of farming societies in southern Africa. He is the author of Snakes and Crocodiles: Power and Symbolism in Ancient Zimbabwe (Witwatersrand University Press, 1996) and Handbook to the Iron Age: the Archaeology of Pre-Colonial Farming Societies in Southern Africa (University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2007). He is now applying the same anthropological approach to hunter-gatherer and farming societies in Colorado.

Frank Lee Earley

Frank Lee Earley is a native Coloradan. He received a BA (1964) and MA (1965) from the University of Denver and MA from the University of Arizona (1977). His principal interests are the archaeology of eastern Colorado and the archaeology and ethnography of the American Southwest. He taught Anthropology and History at Arapahoe Community College in Littleton, Colorado (1967 to 2002) where he was Head of Social Sciences (1987 to 2002) and Director of Southwest Studies Program (1972 to 1978). Since retirement, he has remained active in archaeological research and writing. He is the author of Chaco Canyon. A Study Guide (Museum of Anthropology, Arapahoe Community College, 1976); The Missions of New Mexico. A Study Guide (Museum of Anthropology, Arapahoe Community College, 1978); and View from the Fourth Floor, a Personal History of Arapahoe Community College, 1967–2005 (Downtown Chaco Press, Elizabeth, Co. 2012).