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Abstract
The African littoral of the Indian Ocean is a significant part of the Indian Ocean region. In the context of the IOR–ARC, focus is given to the African littoral of the Indian Ocean Rim, which consists of 10 states plus three French island territories. However, an African Indian Ocean extended area of 24 states plus the French islands can be identified as part of the broader Indian Ocean region, to which we refer as the African Indian Ocean littoral and hinterland. This highlights the fact that the African land-locked states represent a pertinent and significant dimension to the relation between the African littoral and the rest of the Indian Ocean region. Overall, this African Indian Ocean littoral and hinterland is a region of low socio-economic development facing many challenges. Nonetheless, it is a region on the move, and some substantial improvements can be expected during the entire twenty-first century. The potential, and perhaps even expected outcome of a much larger and healthier population, a better performing and more open economy, and an increase in and more efficient management of maritime activities will set the scene for the rising significance of the African littoral to both the Indian Ocean region and the Indian Ocean Rim, thus also increasing its geopolitical and geostrategic significance.
Notes
1. These include the two inhabited islands of Mayotte and Réunion, as well as the uninhabited French Southern and Antarctic Lands districts of Crozet, Kerguelen, Saint-Paul & Amsterdam and the Scattered Islands (Bassas da India atoll, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, Europa Island and Tromelin Island).
2. This consists of the Chagos Archipelago and includes the atoll of Diego Garcia, well known for its American military base (US Navy Support Facility Diego Garcia).
3. ‘In the context of the Declaration contained in General Assembly resolution 2832 (XXVI) of 16 December 1971, the Indian Ocean as a zone of peace should cover the Indian Ocean itself, its natural extensions, the islands thereon, the ocean floor subjacent thereto, the littoral and hinterland States and the air space above’ (United Nations, Citation1979, Article 14).
4. Adaptation from Bouchard and Crumplin (Citation2010) to include the land-locked state of South Sudan, which became independent from Sudan on 9 July 2011.
5. The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago is being disputed between the UK and Mauritius. The archipelago was split from the Outer islands of Mauritius prior to Mauritian independence in 1965.
6. According to the medium variant of the latest UN population projections (United Nations, Citation2013), India's population is projected to be 1,584,183,000 inhabitants in 2090 (United Nations, Citation2013).
7. According to Shaw (Citation2012, p. 839), ‘its burgeoning middle classes, both intra-continental and diasporic, have begun to attract appropriate attention: rising from 100 to 300 million over three decades’. Beverez (Citation2013) also speaks about the formation of a middle class of 300 million people, and adds that it will increase twofold by 2050 to 600 million people. Dörr et al. (Citation2010) report that ‘the number of households with discretionary income is projected to grow 50 percent over the next 10 years to 128 millions. Already, Africa's household spending tops $860 billion a year, more than that of India or Russia’.
8. According to Erasmus (Citation2013), the Tripartite Free Trade Area seems today to have deviated from its original intention and to be facing some new difficulties.
9. Cited by Turok (Citation2010, p. 21).
10. Association formed by Brasil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.
11. South Africa's President Jacob Zuma hosted the Fifth BRICS Summit on 27 March 2013 in Durban under the theme ‘BRICS and Africa: Partnership for Development, Integration and Industrialisation’ (source: http://www.brics5.co.za/).
12. A list of all the submissions made to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, as well as the pertinent documentation for each case, is available on the commission website at http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/clcs_home.htm
13. Considering only the EEZ part of the Indian Ocean. The total area of EEZ claimed by Australia is 8.2 million square km off Australia and its remote offshore territories, and 2 million square km off the Australian Antarctic Territory (Geoscience Australia, Citation2010).
14. Considering only the EEZ part of the Indian Ocean. The total area of EEZ claimed by Indonesia is 6.1 million square km off the Indonesian archipelagic baselines (Sea Around Us Project, Citation2013).
15. The lack of coastal states monitoring, control and surveillance capacities at sea is the main issue in the African Indian Ocean waters. However, coastal states have received some substantial aid from foreign powers to develop their capacities at sea. There are also important bilateral cooperations with other states on this matter, such as between Mauritius and India as well as Mauritius and France.
16. Combined Task Force 151's mission is to disrupt piracy and armed robbery at sea and to engage with regional and other partners to build capacity and improve relevant capabilities in order to protect global maritime commerce and secure freedom of navigation. It was established in January 2009 with a specific piracy mission-based mandate under the authority of UNSCRs 1816, 1838, 1846, 1851 and 1897 (source: http://combinedmaritimeforces.com/ctf-151-counter-piracy/).
17. Under the EU Council Joint Action, which is based on various UN resolutions, EU NAVFOR's mandate is to conduct: (1) the protection of World Food Programme vessels delivering aid to displaced persons in Somalia, and the protection of African Union Mission in Somalia shipping; (2) the deterrence, prevention and repression of acts of piracy and armed robbery at sea off the Somali coast; (3) the protection of vulnerable shipping off the Somali coast on a case by case basis; and (4) some help in the monitoring of fishing activities off the coast of Somalia. On 23 March 2012 the Council of the EU extended the Mandate of Operation Atalanta until December 2014. At the same time, the Council also extended the Area of Operation to include Somali coastal territory and internal waters (source: http://eunavfor.eu/).
18. IHO: International Hydrographic Organization; IMO: International Maritime Organization; WMO: World Meteorological Organization; and NAVAREAS are the geographic areas in which various governments are responsible for navigation and weather. warnings.
19. As an example, a coral biodiversity hotspot has recently been identified and documented for the northern Mozambique Channel. See: Obura, D. (2012). The diversity and biogeography of western Indian Ocean reef-building corals. PLoS ONE 7(9); and Obura, D. (2012). Evolutionary mechanisms and diversity in a western Indian Ocean center of diversity. Proceedings of the 12th International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia, 9–13 July 2012. According to Conservation International, the waters surrounding Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands represent one of world marine biodiversity hotspots (http://www.conservation.org).
20. The Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the eastern African region was signed in 1985 and came into force in 1996, making it one of 17 regional seas conventions and action plans. The Convention was amended and adopted in April 2010 (source: http://www.unep.org/nairobiconvention/).
21. The main objective of the Commission is to promote the sustainable utilization of the living marine resources of the southwest Indian Ocean region, by the proper management and development of the living marine resources, without prejudice to the sovereign rights of coastal states and to address common problems of fisheries management and development faced by the Members of the Commission (http://www.fao.org/fishery/rfb/swiofc/en).
22. The Indian Ocean Tuna Commission is an intergovernmental organization mandated to manage tuna and tuna-like species in the Indian Ocean and adjacent seas. Its objective is to promote cooperation among its Members with a view to ensuring, through appropriate management, the conservation and optimum utilisation of stocks and encouraging sustainable development of fisheries based on such stocks (source: http://www.iotc.org/).