Counting women? Gendered sustainability and inclusivity for an ocean accounting framework

ABSTRACT

The oceans are increasingly pivotal in scholarly and policy dialogues focused on achieving inclusive economic and social prosperity. The Ocean Account Global Framework (2020) underscores oceans' role as essential for social and economic development, crucially contributing to human well-being and gender equality. With oceans holding significant economic potential, governments face mounting pressure to systematically account for ocean resources and their utilisation (Ocean Account Global Framework, 2020). This need is particularly acute given the evolving relationships between economic prosperity, inclusive development, social well-being, and oceans. However, a knowledge gap persists, impairing governments' ability to make informed and gender inclusive decisions about oceans and undermining long-term commitments outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Ocean Global Account Framework, 2020). This article examines ocean governance, focusing on gender-related aspects and integrating gender perspectives into the ocean accounting framework using a political economy lens, supported by environmental and gender political economy analyses.

KEYWORDS:

• Ocean account framework
• gender
• women and the oceans

Introduction

Oceans are increasingly gaining scholarly and policy attention to achieve economic and social prosperity. Indeed, the Ocean Account Global Framework (2020) highlight oceans are the ‘ … foundation of social and economic development … Oceans make major contributions, many irreplaceable, to human well-being and development’. Due to the major economic potential found within oceans, there is an increasing need to account for ocean resources and how they are used (Ocean Account Global Framework, 2020), most notably around ‘ … context-specific relationships between economic prosperity, social well-being and oceans (and how these change over time)’. This ‘ … knowledge gap … ’ undermines the ability of governments to ‘ … make effective and inclusive decisions about oceans, delivering on the long-term commitments recognized in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’ (Ocean Global Account Framework, 2020). For the United Nations (2015), oceans are critical to human well-being and sustainable development given the economic potential and need to conserve oceans to mitigate the negative impact of climate change. It is this climate crisis and focus on ocean sustainability that necessitates consideration for the relationship between gender, the blue economy, and the ocean account framework, especially with a focus on how one accounts for production and consumption as well as social justice and inclusivity within the ocean’s economy from a gendered lens.

This article considers gender, gender mainstreaming and the ocean accounting framework from a political economy and ocean governance perspective, drawing on environmental and gender political economy. To advance a more inclusive and gendered frame for ocean accounting, we consider questions on gender mainstreaming and transformative gender practice to facilitate a more nuanced approach to inclusive and gender equal ocean accounting from a gendered and environmental political economy perspective.

Politically blue: environment, gender, and ocean accounting

The ocean is highly political. Bennett (2019, p. 1) describes the ocean as ‘ … political seas … ’ where questions of ‘ … power and politics, narratives and knowledge, scale and history, environmental justice and equality are … salient issues to understand in ocean and coastal governance and management’. Maritime boundary disputes, contestation over who owns what in the ocean, coupled with environmental concerns and climate change and the economic exploitation of the ocean (Østhagen, 2021, pp. 1–2) create a contested political economy of the oceans. A political economy engages questions of states and markets, structure and agency, and history and institutions (Payne, 2006, p. 1). Therefore, the blue economy’s patterns of production, consumption and demands, the way the ocean’s economy is structured and its impact on the agency of groups, especially marginalized groups, are important considerations when thinking about accounting mechanisms on how we use the oceans.

The overall architecture of ocean governance is important when building a gendered ocean account framework. The Ocean Account Framework, a comprehensive approach to understanding and managing marine resources, has gained prominence for its emphasis on sustainable development and conservation. As the international community increasingly recognizes the critical role of oceans in global ecosystems, discussions around the Ocean Account Framework have also turned toward ensuring gender inclusivity in its implementation. Recognizing the distinct roles and contributions of men and women in coastal communities is vital for the framework's success. Women often play key roles in fisheries, aquaculture, and coastal resource management, yet their contributions are frequently undervalued and overlooked. Integrating a gender perspective into the Ocean Account Framework acknowledges the importance of gender equity for effective and sustainable ocean management.

Gender inclusivity within the Ocean Account Framework involves addressing the specific challenges faced by women in coastal and marine environments. This includes recognizing the unique vulnerabilities women may have due to societal norms, limited access to resources, and disparities in decision-making power. Moreover, it involves acknowledging and valuing the traditional knowledge that women often hold regarding sustainable resource management and community resilience. By actively engaging women in the decision-making processes related to ocean governance and resource management, the framework can benefit from diverse perspectives, leading to more equitable and effective outcomes.

Efforts to promote gender inclusivity in the Ocean Account Framework extend beyond recognizing women's roles; they also involve creating opportunities for women to actively participate in decision-making forums. This may require addressing barriers such as limited access to education and training, as well as challenging stereotypes and biases that may hinder women's involvement in marine science and policy. Additionally, ensuring equal representation in leadership roles within the framework's implementation entities is crucial for fostering an inclusive and diverse approach to sustainable ocean management.

Conceptually, the idea of a blue economy seeks to advance economic development and social inclusion, to enhance livelihoods while working to ensure the environmental sustainability of the oceans and coastal territories (World Bank, 2017, p. vi). At its core lies the commitment ‘to decouple socioeconomic development from environmental degradation, by the incorporation of the real value of the natural capital (ocean values and services) into all aspects of economic activity’ (World Bank, 2017, p. vi). A key component of the blue economy is its emphasis on recognizing that the ecosystem services provided by the ocean are essential to achieve the global priorities of poverty eradication with both intrinsic and fiscal qualities that support environmental and human well-being and sustainable development (Rumbaitis del Rio, 2014). At the very core of the busy is sustainable, inclusive, and equitable development.

The blue economy thus is centered on the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth and is inherently linked to the health and resilience of marine ecosystems. This links to the Ocean Account Framework in creating mechanisms for accounting how we use the ocean resources and space. Recognizing and addressing gender disparities is fundamental to unlocking the full potential of the blue economy, as women often play pivotal roles in sectors such as fisheries, aquaculture, and coastal tourism. Furthermore, promoting inclusivity and sustainability as key pillars of ocean accounting will have major implications for ocean governance.

Addressing the future of ocean governance, Haas et al. (2021) emphasize the complexity and conflicting goals among stakeholders, including states, civil society, local communities, and market actors. The authors identify five key drivers shaping ocean governance: formal rules and institutions, evidence-based decision-making, legitimacy, stakeholder engagement, and empowering communities within ocean structures. They propose a transformative socio-political agenda involving co-creation, improved management plans, enhanced decision-making, and better anticipation of ambiguity and uncertainty.

In this context, the ocean account framework aims to contribute to social, environmental, cultural, and economic justice within the blue economy. Within the broader context of ocean governance and the blue economy, the ocean account framework serves as a pivotal instrument aimed at fostering comprehensive justice across various dimensions. Social justice within the blue economy implies equitable opportunities and outcomes for all members of society, regardless of gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. The ocean account framework endeavors to ensure that the benefits derived from marine resources are distributed fairly, addressing historical imbalances and empowering marginalized communities. By incorporating a social justice lens, the framework seeks to enhance inclusivity and participation, enabling communities to actively engage in decision-making processes related to ocean resource management and economic activities.

Environmental justice is another crucial facet that the ocean account framework addresses. It strives to promote sustainability and ecological integrity within the blue economy. Recognizing the interconnectedness of marine ecosystems and their delicate balance, the framework seeks to prevent environmental degradation and depletion of marine resources. This involves adopting practices that prioritize conservation, biodiversity protection, and the preservation of delicate coastal ecosystems. By embedding environmental justice principles, the framework aims to ensure that current and future generations can derive benefits from the ocean without compromising its health and resilience.

Cultural justice within the blue economy involves acknowledging and respecting the cultural values, traditions, and practices of coastal communities. The ocean account framework recognizes the profound relationship that many communities have with the ocean, often rooted in cultural heritage and identity. Preserving and respecting these cultural connections becomes an integral part of the framework's objectives. This entails avoiding actions that may lead to cultural erosion or the displacement of communities dependent on marine resources. By prioritizing cultural justice, the framework aims to create a space where diverse cultural perspectives are valued, protected, and integrated into sustainable ocean governance.

Economic justice within the context of the ocean account framework pertains to fair and inclusive economic opportunities for all stakeholders involved in the blue economy. This involves addressing issues such as income disparities, access to employment, and the fair distribution of economic benefits derived from marine activities. The framework seeks to prevent the concentration of economic gains in the hands of a few, emphasizing the importance of inclusive economic policies that uplift local communities. By fostering economic justice, the ocean account framework contributes to the creation of a blue economy that is not only economically viable but also socially equitable and environmentally sustainable.

The question, however, is how does one create an ocean account framework that can count justice? It is in addressing questions of justice that the conceptual tools offered by environmental political economy may become valuable. The conceptual tools in environmental political economy, namely the interplay between globalization, governance, and sustainable development (Meadowcroft, 2006, p. 59) are central unpacking the dynamics of ocean accounting within a blue economy frame. A globalization lens allows one to ‘ … . approach the reordering of economic and political space, where developments in the environmental sphere can be linked to wider patterns of international change’ (Meadowcroft, 2006, p. 59). The governance lens to environmental political economy questions issues of authority, shifting roles of government in changing societies, and actors that shape social relations outside of government (Meadowcroft, 2006, p. 59). The sustainability lens, considering ecological limitations, positions environmental concerns and crisis within evolving societal developmental trajectories (Meadowcroft, 2006, p. 59). Similarly, these elements also shaped a gendered political economy within the oceans’ economy.

Environmental political economy plays a significant role in shaping the dynamics of the blue economy, particularly concerning gender justice. Environmental political economy examines the power dynamics, institutions, and policies influencing resource use and distribution. In the context of the blue economy, understanding these dynamics is crucial for promoting gender justice, ensuring that women have equal access to and benefit from marine resources. In the blue economy, gender justice involves addressing disparities in access, participation, and benefits between men and women. Environmental political economy sheds light on how institutional structures and policy frameworks can either perpetuate or challenge existing gender inequalities. By examining power relations and decision-making processes, environmental political economy offers insights into how to design policies that promote gender justice within the blue economy.

A gender-aware environmental political economy approach within the ocean accounting framework recognizes that women often play essential roles within the blue economy, yet their contributions are frequently undervalued or overlooked. It delves into the social, economic, and political factors that shape women's participation in these sectors, including issues of access to resources, property rights, and decision-making power. Essentially, this approach allows one to determine the level of agency women enjoy in advancing their interest within the ocean spaces, economically, socially, and culturally. By understanding the power structures at play, environmental political economy can inform policies that empower women economically and socially within the blue economy, contributing to overall gender justice.

Moreover, environmental political economy can highlight the intersectionality of gender with other social categories, such as race and class. It recognizes that different groups of women may experience distinct challenges and opportunities based on these intersecting factors. Examining how policies impact diverse groups of women provides a more nuanced understanding of gender justice in the blue economy and facilitates more inclusive accounting to how women use ocean resources within the ocean accounting framework.

Consider, for example, the notion of eco-feminism that dominated policy and political narrative on gender and environmental governance in the 1990s. Eco-feminism sought to highlight the correlation between environmental destruction and patriarchy and the role of women to reverse this environmental destruction given a special relationship between women and nature as early as the 1970s (Foster, 2021, pp. 3–6). Ecofeminism sought to politicize the importance of women as key stakeholders in environmental protection (Foster, 2021, p. 6). Ecofeminism also focussed on economic and other inequalities generated through ‘ … exploitation and oppression of nature and women … ’ as well as the ‘ … way that technology is used to control, degrade and destroy the environment as well as the impact this has had on women’s lives and livelihoods’ (Foster, 2021, p. 7). While ecofeminism was principally rejected, the Rio Earth Summit of 1992 essentially promoted women’s participation and visibility in global environmental initiatives (Foster, 2021, p. 1). It is important to note that women’s visibility and not voice was promoted, thus prompting a focus on considering women in environmental policy as opposed to including women in the process of environmental policy making.

While we note a shift in the international political and economic space toward gender sensitivity and an acknowledgement of gender vulnerability, this did not directly translate into a reordering of the political and economic space and wider patterns of international change to advance real gender inclusion in policy making. A similar pattern occurs within the policy narrative of the ocean account framework, blue economy, and ocean governance. Indeed, Gissi, Portman, and Hornidge (2018, p. 214) emphasizes that achieving effective ocean governance requires not only addressing gender equity and power dynamics but also recognizing the indispensable contributions of female voices. In instances like fisheries management, the exclusion of women results in an incomplete understanding of the social-ecological connections within marine ecosystems. Women's advocacy for the common good in marine conservation often raises essential concerns that are sometimes overlooked. Additionally, women contribute to the talent pool for innovation and smart growth in maritime industries. Despite the potential benefits of involving women in ocean governance, gender biases persist, influencing decision-making processes. To enhance ocean governance, it is crucial to dismantle the structural and systemic hurdles that contribute to gendered decision-taking in matters related to the ocean.

In addition to ocean governance narratives still advocating for the inclusion of women voices in ocean policy making and governance, a form of blue eco-feminism also calls for a broader, more inclusive, and holistic approach to gender justice which includes indigenous voices and knowledge as well as culture within the policy narrative of the oceans:

The giants of ecofeminist discourse continue to provide a strong framework that with our many Indigenous stories, wisdoms and ways of life, can ultimately be adapted to rethinking our ocean discourse. In a global effort to better understand our way forward through to a healthier ocean, an emerging blue ecofeminism may inspire a realignment of the future we desire toward the kind of ocean we need (Bossi, 2020, p. 38).

Thus, within the policy narratives surrounding ocean governance and the ocean account framework, including the underlying conceptualization of a blue economy, we note a continued gendered and environmental political economy that advocates not merely for the visibility of women, but voice and agency to influence policy directives for sustainable development within the ocean’s political economy, both from a gendered perspective but also an environmental political economy lens.

A gendered ocean’s political economy

Policy narratives within ocean governance and blue economy initiatives speak of enhancing the economic power of women through economic inclusion for gender equity, increasing the political power of women through appointments to high-level decision-making structures for voice and presentation, and facilitating economic inclusion of women for sustainable development. And, as Peterson (2006, p. 82) notes that making women visible in development is of extreme importance, one also cannot negate the creation of gendered economic dichotomies where ‘ … women/femininity cannot simply be ‘added’ to constructions that are constituted as masculine: reason, economic man, breadwinner, the public sphere … ’. For Peterson, one needs to move toward a more analytical conceptualization of gender in political economies because gender serves as a governing principle that permeates language, it systematically moulds our thought processes, influences what we consider as ‘knowledge,’ and determines the legitimacy of such claims to knowledge.

There is, thus, a need to unpack and interrogate the relationship between gender and transformation, cultural norms that govern gender, and what the political imaginary of gender justice is for an ocean governance and ocean account framework. More importantly, the narrative within gendered political economy and sustainable development also flags whose voices are included, heard, and prioritized in narratives of inclusive and sustainable development. Peterson (2006, pp. 82–83) details numerous studies that continue to challenge the notion that development benefits all, given the high levels of exclusion in underdeveloped and developing societies where women remain at the periphery of developmental accounting paradigms. Bennett, Blythe, White, and Campero (2020) underscore significant disparities between the rhetoric and reality of the blue economy narrative, emphasizing an unequal distribution of resources in the ocean's economy that mirrors global inequality patterns. The authors highlight the marginalized position of women in blue development, despite policy initiatives for women's empowerment. Women in fisheries, according to Bennett et al. (2020), continue to occupy ‘invisible roles,’ facing recognition issues, unpaid or underpaid work, and structural discrimination that perpetuates their marginalization. Various factors contribute to this, including unpaid care responsibilities, limited access to capital, exclusion from policy planning, and the impact of male labor migration on women's agency within households. The authors argue that exclusion from decision-making processes exacerbates gender vulnerability in the ocean's economy, particularly as resource use and access are deeply influenced by gendered access to capital, assets, knowledge, and relationships across the life course. Despite the blue economy being presented as a new frontier of opportunity, Bennett et al. (2020) caution that it carries caveats that may perpetuate exclusion and marginalization, which can significantly impact ocean accounting frameworks aspiring to measure sustainability and social and cultural inclusivity.

Structural inequalities matter, but so too does discourse, gender, and culture, as Peterson (2006, p. 82) observes. Consider, for example, the narratives linking blue economy and gender or women’s empowerment. One needs to consider how gender is constructed in the context of development, and specifically, the oceans’ economy to facilitate an accurate oceans account framework to measure gender equality and justice. Consider the policy narratives around gender and the blue economy, the foundation on which the ocean account framework is built. The ocean governance and policy narrative on the blue economy stresses capacity-building for women; rendering women as passive participants in initiatives to develop their capacity to become key role players in the blue economy or to enable them to draw on the distributive potential of an ocean’s economy. This approach renders women to the domain of passivity (a traditional gender construct), and not active agents in their own capacity-building where they are able to decide, influence and design what capacity-building is needed.

Gendered policy analysis thus requires one to pay attention to ‘ … criteria of genderedness and structural and intersectional understanding in relation to context and empowerment and incremental empowerment in relation to process’ (Kriszan & Lombardo, 2013, p. 78). Intersectionality and gendered difference matters in the realm of policy, gender, transformation, and change, most notably in the realm of sustainable and inclusive development and its associated accounting and governance structures and systems that shape socio-political and socio-economic agency.

Gender mainstreaming and global policy development: power, narratives, and empowerment

While conventional wisdom highlights that achieving a gender-equal world is reliant on the equal representation of women in economic, political, and social affairs where they would occupy a space at the table and focus on women in development (Esquival, 2016; True, 2003, p. 370), there is a need to also engage structural factors that shape gender relations and power. In other words, if women sit at the table are they afforded sufficient agency and space to speak and make decisions at the table. Gender mainstreaming, thus

… includes attempts to establish a gender-equality perspective across all policy areas, even where gender issues at stake may be not immediately apparent, as in foreign security policy, and where the impact of policy on gender relations is often indirect, as in macroeconomic policy. Gender mainstreaming is neither conceived of as an achievement in itself nor as a liberal policy to include women in decision-making roles, although this may be one of its effects. Rather, it is conceived as a strategy to re-invent the process of policy design, implementation, and often diverse interests and values of differently situated women and men … It is assumed that unfair and unequal gender outcomes can be redressed, if not eradicated, by this gender-sensitive policy process (True, 2003, p. 371).

Yet, while gender mainstreaming might bring forth different unintended policy consequences for men and women, it does not necessarily address structural factors that undermine the advancement of women to fully realize authority and autonomy during their lives. It is here that discursive change becomes important (True, 2003, p. 374), which entails using language and words to change perceptions and dominant views on issues that directly impact on the authority and autonomy of women. Another essential element is transnational interaction of women’s networks and organizations which, through interaction, discussion, and dialogue, can highlight gender injustice and salient structural inequalities that impact on the autonomy and authority of women (True, 2003, p. 374). To this effect thus,

Women’s movements have been pioneers in extending the principles of the networked society to facilitate change. Networking has brought women together from the grassroots to the national and global levels to share resources and information often unavailable to state bureaucracies, and to exchange ‘best practice’ strategies for mobilising societies and pressurising government … transnational feminist networks have served to effect change at the global level as well as the national level, by mainstreaming gender issues in multilateral institutions and policies (True, 2003, p. 378).

Assessing outcomes associated with gender equality and women empowerment policies of often open to contestation and debate (Kriszan & Lombardo, 2013, p. 78). Poverty reduction initiatives and policies for women’s economic empowerment often do not take cognisance of structural factors that undermine their intended policy outcomes. For example, when women take primary responsibility for unpaid care work at home and within the family, it limits her capacity to fully embrace equal opportunities in the workplace. When women cut their education short to undertake family responsibilities or care work or because society values the education of boys and men over that of girls and women, it undermines her agency in pursuing an education for her life’s purpose and goals. Transformative gender policy thus needs unpacks how cultural, policy, economic and social structures disempower women from achieving their full autonomy and authority and how development can be reconfigured within the context of freedom and autonomy.

For Kriszan and Lombardo (2013, p. 79) empowerment entails claiming autonomy to make life choices and authority to participate meaningfully in civic life and political decision-making. Thus, when assessing the quality of gender policies, one must pay attention to the conceptualization and impact on autonomy and authority women enjoy in society by focusing on the content and process of gendered policy and policy making:

 … operationalise autonomy as the governance of gender (ways in which states control self-determination of women through the content of policies), and authority as gendering governance (access of women to decision-making), and show how the two aspects together can capture progress in gender equality. These two aspects of empowerment are: content and process. Empowerment as personal autonomy is a quality criterion for gender equality that relates to the governance of gender, i.e. the content of policies. Empowerment as collective authority is pursued by gendering the governance and as such the process criterion … sets the framework for understanding the quality of gender equality policies (Kriszan & Lombardo, 2013, p. 79).

Thus, policies that advance women empowerment will need to be analyzed according to the extent to which women in society enjoy autonomy to follow their life’s purpose and make decisions accordingly and the level of authority they enjoy in setting political agendas and policy directives for themselves. In other words, voice and agency are central components of quality gender policies: agency to act as an autonomous actor in society regardless of gender and voice to direct and shape policy and governance that affect women. In this context of voice and agency, Jones and Perry (2003, p. 103) stresses the structure structural inequality that influence the agency and voice of women, ideology (perceptions, views, and accepted ‘truths’ of the status of women, gender roles, and women’s values in society), and power relationships (structure and ideology that shape the construction of social reality around gender) that influence policy directives and outcomes of women empowerment (Dutt & Grabe, 2017). It is in these policy narratives on content and process where gender mainstreaming can be employed to challenge the dominant gender perceptions, ideology, and narrative. For example, it is now accepted that development initiatives dominated by poverty reduction and economic growth is insufficient to deal with the social dimensions of development where a one-size-fits-all view does not address key structural barriers for women empowerment and policy consequences have different impact on diverse populations of women.

A key example is the continued ‘ … universal feminization of poverty’ and patriarchy that has been identified as the common denominator in societies where women’s autonomy and authority has not been fully realized (Jones & Perry, 2003, p. 97). And, in breaking down patriarchal structures, one also must recognize the interplay of race, class, and gender in engendering gender injustice and inequality. Given the complexity of gender and development and the interplay of structure, ideology and power, there are number of perspectives gender injustice diagnostics and associated remedies (Jones & Perry, 2003, p. 101).

In addressing gender injustice, diverse approaches stress different structural changes are necessary within the governance and accounting framework to advance sustainability, inclusion, and redistribution. This includes women’s representation and equal opportunity in work and education, changing patterns of ownership in the modes of production, and coupling the ‘development of consciousness’ to the oppressive state of being with development projects for bottom-up development and gender justice. In other words, empowerment and its associated ideals is multifaceted spanning the economic, social, cultural, and political spheres. It entails reshaping societal power dynamics to facilitate the full political inclusion of women as agents in decision-making, not beneficiaries, most notably around issues that directly affect them such as reproductive health; reshaping traditional gender roles and stereotypes, most notably around child care responsibilities and unpaid care work; reshaping culture and gender power dynamics, most notably around issues of land ownership, marriage, domestic violence, and inheritance; reshaping economic equality and fairness, most notably around equal pay for equal work, and sharing family responsibilities for women to have sufficient capacity to pursue their careers; and reshaping the social construction of women in society, most notably around narratives that undermine women’s agency in their own development and empowerment initiatives where women are constructed as in need of empowerment as opposed to creating environments conducive for women empowerment.

It is here that the challenge for a gender inclusive ocean account framework lies. How does one account for unpaid care work performed by women when men are out fishing? How does one measure childrearing responsibilities vis-à-vis economic extraction from the ocean? When considering gender inclusivity within the ocean account framework, one, therefore, cannot underscore the importance of how feminist ideas about gender translate not just into global policy (True, 2003, p. 368), but also how we can account for gendered socio-political and socio-economic inclusion within the ocean accounting space. It creates the possibility of employing gender mainstreaming as an analytical lens to recognize and dissect gendered policy development in ocean governance and how we account for inclusivity and sustainability within this political economy.

Barriers and opportunities: counting women in the ocean’s economy

The blue economy is envisioned as a means of self-empowerment for women and recognizes their untapped potential. However, there is a need to create an enabling environment and education for women's empowerment in the blue economy, urging a change in gender attitudes. The context-specific challenges and opportunities, especially in emerging areas like information technology, require creative thinking in accounting for gender inclusivity within the ocean economic spaces and various accounting frameworks. Additionally, unpaid care work, traditional gender roles, and gender stereotypes are identified as significant barriers that demand intersectional approaches for understanding women's roles in the blue economy. Efforts should focus on mainstreaming gender equality values and addressing hurdles through policy changes, attitude shifts, and education.

The barriers and opportunities for gender inclusivity in the ocean account framework are multifaceted and crucial for fostering a more inclusive and equitable blue economy. Barriers include deeply ingrained gender stereotypes and traditional roles, particularly in male-dominated sectors of the ocean economy. Unpaid care work, disproportionately shouldered by women, hampers their participation in maritime activities. Structural issues such as limited access to land and financial resources further impede women's engagement in the blue economy. Moreover, entrenched gender biases in decision-making processes and the lack of representation pose significant challenges for women in the maritime sector.

On the flip side, numerous opportunities exist to overcome these barriers and promote gender inclusivity in the ocean account framework. Educational campaigns can challenge stereotypes and encourage women to pursue careers in traditionally male-dominated fields within the blue economy. Creating networks and support systems for women, along with providing leadership opportunities, can empower them to actively participate and excel in maritime activities. Recognizing and valuing women's unpaid care work is crucial, and policies should be designed to support work-life balance and equal sharing of responsibilities. Moreover, integrating gender perspectives into decision-making processes and policy planning is essential for creating an inclusive and equitable blue economy.

Ultimately, addressing barriers and capitalizing on opportunities requires a comprehensive approach that involves changes in societal attitudes, policy reforms, educational initiatives, and support systems. Gender inclusivity in the ocean account framework is not only a matter of justice but also a strategic imperative for fostering sustainable and thriving coastal communities.

Conclusion: conceptual considerations when ‘counting women' in the ocean economy

In developing a social account measure for gender inclusivity within the ocean’s economy, one would require targeted and specific policy differentiation approaches driven by the findings of evidence-based policy research. This would also entail sufficient investment in research capacity building, not just in natural and ocean sciences, but also humanities and social sciences to unpack and understanding the gendered and environmental political economy dynamics that shape and impact on inclusion, sustainability, and justice within an ocean’s economy.

There needs to be a broader campaign on blue economy and social accounting mechanisms within the structures of ocean governance and social accounting frameworks. Focus should be placed on sectors of the oceans economy where women are under-represented or discriminated against. This would include traditionally male-dominated sectors such as ocean’s renewable technology, seabed mining, and seafarer and shipping. This, however, would require sufficient data to determine to what extent and for what reason women are or remain excluded from certain industries within the ocean’s economy. As such, this is a key future research priority to facilitate a gendered accounting framework on who participates within the key sectors of the oceans’ economy.

A critical element in advancing women’s empowerment within ocean governance with a focus on gendered social accounting and the oceans’ economy is the need for evidence-based policymaking. Critically, one needs to fill data gaps and, there is a need more data disaggregated by gender within the oceans economy. Given that in future one will want to measure gender inclusion within the social accounting framework of the ocean’s economy, this data will be needed to determine strategies that advance women’s empowerment through the oceans’ economy. There is a need to engage with relevant government ministries to start capturing data disaggregated by gender in the key oceans economic sectors as well as engage Business and Economic Development Ministries to conduct an audit of key companies in the emergent technology-driven sectors of the ocean economy to ascertain the level of participation of women in those sectors.

There is a need to map and engage with non-governmental organizations and social movements within the oceans economic space to determine the key issues around which women are mobilizing and prioritizing to advance women’s empowerment and exercise their political agency. This would also entail tracing ecofeminist movements to understand the economic and human impact on ocean sustainability, gender, and community and culture.

In conclusion, integrating gender inclusivity into the Ocean Account Framework is essential for achieving its overarching goals of sustainable ocean management. By recognizing, valuing, and actively involving women in decision-making processes, the framework can better address the complex and interconnected challenges facing marine ecosystems and coastal communities. A gender-inclusive approach not only promotes equity but also enhances the resilience and effectiveness of efforts aimed at preserving the health and vitality of the world's oceans.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This research was funded by the 10.13039/501100001322 South African Research Chairs Initiative through the South African National Department of Science and Innovation/10.13039/501100001321 National Research Foundation , by a Community of Practice grant in Ocean Accounts Framework (UID: 125455). The opinions expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of the funding bodies.

Notes on contributors

Joleen Steyn Kotze

Prof Joleen Steyn Kotze is a Chief Research Specialist in Democracy and Citizenship in the DCES research division at the Human Science Research Council. She is also a Research Fellow at the Centre for Gender and African Studies at the University of the Free State. As an NRF-Rated C2-Researcher, her academic interests are rooted in democracy theory, focussing on substantive democratisation and socio-political citizenship. She has published numerous peer reviewed articles focussing on democracy, citizenship, and gender and transformation. In 2009 she was awarded the International Award for Excellence in Interdisciplinary Social Sciences by Common Ground Publishing and in 2014 she was chosen for the Nelson Mandela Bay Business Chamber’s Top 40 Under 40. Her book, Delivering an Elusive Dream of Democracy: Lessons from Nelson Mandela Bay was nominated for the 2020 South African Academy of Science Humanities Book Award. She serves on the NRF’s Expert Panel for Politics and Philosophy and is an expert on the Varieties of Democracy Survey, University of Gothenberg.

Narnia Bohler-Muller

Prof Narnia Bohler-Muller, a Doctor of Law, writes on human rights, gender equality and social and environmental justice. Among her recent books are Reddy, V., Bohler-Muller, N., Mokomane, Z., and Soudien, C., and (eds). 2024. State of the Nation: Quality of Life and Wellbeing, HSRC Press; Bohler-Muller, N., Reddy, V., and Houston, G., Schoeman, M., and Thuynsma, H. (eds.) 2022. The Texture of Dissent: Defiant Public Intellectuals in South Africa, HSRC Press; Bohler-Muller, N., Soudien, C., and Reddy, V. (eds). 2020. State of the Nation: Ethics, Politics, Inequality: New Directions, HSRC Press.