Unlocking biodiversity awareness: influential factors on bird species knowledge and the links with environmental attitudes and connectedness to nature.

ABSTRACT

In the face of accelerating biodiversity loss, there is a need for widespread public support for conservation efforts. To increase the understanding of biodiversity issues, researchers suggest beginning with the acquisition of species knowledge. However, to optimally support the successful acquisition of species knowledge, influencing factors must first be identified. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the relationship between species knowledge, environmental attitudes, and connection to nature, as well as individual variables such as interest, perception, and animal-related activities. Species knowledge was assessed using 50 bird species. A total of 3438 German participants were asked to identify these species in an online survey. Structural equation modelling results indicated that interest in birds and involvement in animal-related activities positively influenced species knowledge. Surprisingly, the perception of birds negatively affected species knowledge, highlighting the complexity of personal biases in environmental education. While connectedness to nature doesn’t directly influence bird knowledge, it emerges as a strong predictor of pro-environmental attitudes. Therefore, promoting species knowledge by stimulating interest and involvement in animal-related activities is essential for raising awareness of biodiversity conservation. Furthermore, connecting people with nature helps to foster pro-environmental attitudes, leading to a more sustainable and eco-centric future.

KEYWORDS:

• Bird species knowledge
• 2-MEV-scale
• environmental attitudes
• interest in birds
• animal-related attitudes
• perception of birds

Introduction

The promotion of sustainable development, as outlined in the Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations, UN, 2015), relies heavily on the conservation of biodiversity (Palmberg et al., 2017). Currently, the rate of species loss on Earth is unprecedented in human history (Diaz et al., 2019). Bird species are also affected by this decline and currently, 13.5% of bird species are threatened with global extinction (Lees et al., 2022). To address the alarming trend of species extinction, it is imperative to foster sustainable practices within our society (Amel et al., 2017).

To promote understanding of the natural world, species knowledge – the ability to identify species – is considered fundamental (e.g. Lindemann-Matthies & Bose, 2008; Randler, 2008). Many scientists and conservationists see it as the starting point for creating awareness of nature and its biodiversity because it helps to understand the different roles of species in an ecosystem (e.g. Leather & Quicke, 2010). In addition, species knowledge provides a basis for understanding scientific discussions about biodiversity loss and broader environmental challenges (Jiwa & Esa, 2014). Accordingly, species knowledge is often thought to enhance pro-environmental attitudes, but research in this field is rare (Härtel et al., 2023a).

Pro-environmental attitudes play a crucial role for several reasons. For example, attitudes often shape behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) and can contribute to shaping social norms (Chung & Rimal, 2016). This can contribute to a feedback loop in which sustainable behaviours become more socially accepted and adopted (Davis et al., 2018). In addition, individuals with pro-environmental attitudes are more likely to advocate for policies that stand for environmental conservation (Rohrschneider & Miles, 2015). They are also more receptive to environmental education, thus fostering a greater understanding of environmental challenges (Ajaps & McLellan, 2015).

Environmental attitudes are often measured using the 2-MEV scale developed by Bogner and Wilhelm (1996), which has been independently validated in different countries, samples, and age groups from adolescence to adulthood (e.g. Boeve-de Pauw, 2013; Johnson & Manoli, 2010; Milfont & Duckitt, 2004). The scale is based on the values of preservation and utilization. These values reflect different attitudes towards the environment and are conceptualized within eco-centric and anthropocentric thinking, resulting in two worldviews. Eco-centric attitudes (preservation) are characterized by a worldview that emphasizes living in harmony with nature. Anthropocentric attitudes (utilization) reflect a worldview that supports the use and exploitation of natural resources for human benefit. The 2-MEV scale thus captures the different ways in which individuals perceive and interact with the environment (Bogner & Wiseman, 1999).

In previous research, birds were often used to measure species knowledge (e.g. Enzensberger et al., 2022). This is probably due to the rich but manageable number of species present in Europe and the favourable conditions for observation (birds are diurnal and highly visible) (Gerl et al., 2018). Further, the protection of bird species is of great relevance due to their significant effects on the Earth’s ecosystems and the many ecosystem services they supply (Whelan et al., 2015). Because of their accessibility and abundance, birds are valuable subjects for monitoring programmes, helping to assess habitat quality and the effectiveness of conservation efforts (Sullivan et al., 2014). In environmental education, birds serve as charismatic ambassadors and flagship species for biodiversity. They captivate learners with their beauty, diversity, and ecological importance, while symbolizing the wider conservation efforts needed to protect entire ecosystems (Lees et al., 2022). Previous studies on adult knowledge of bird species have reported identification rates of over 50% (Randler & Heil, 2021) or around 46% (Enzensberger et al., 2022). The identification rates for students are somewhat lower, ranging from 31% in the United Kingdom (Evans et al., 2006) to 35% in Germany (Gerl et al., 2018) and 39% in Slovakia (Prokop & Rodák, 2009). This means that part of the knowledge is acquired after school.

Besides species knowledge, another important aspect of enhancing pro-environmental attitudes may be people’s connection with nature. In their review, Restall and Conrad (2015) revealed that feeling emotionally connected to nature strongly predicts having a positive attitude towards environmental protection. Today, human beings are becoming increasingly disconnected from nature, as part of a syndrome known as ‘extinction of experience’ (Miller, 2005).

To our knowledge, the relationship between connectedness to nature and species knowledge is still unclear. However, many studies show that experiencing nature promotes learning, such as species identification (reviewed by Kuo et al., 2019). In addition, Roczen et al. (2014) showed that environmental system knowledge, which includes species knowledge (Kai et al., 2014), is significantly correlated with connectedness to nature (r = .12). Whether connectedness to nature is a predictor of species knowledge and environmental attitudes is one research desideratum of the current study.

Another stimulus for knowledge acquisition is interest. If people are genuinely interested in a subject, such as bird species, they are more likely to actively seek out information about it (Harackiewicz et al., 2016). Recent studies have shown that individuals interested in bird species seem to be more familiar with them (e.g. Randler & Heil, 2021). Therefore, it can be hypothesized that interest in birds positively influences species knowledge, creating a one-way relationship where interest drives knowledge acquisition.

Furthermore, White et al. (2018) reported a positive relationship between the likeability of birds and the knowledge of schoolchildren. People who value birdwatching in their gardens are also more likely to create a suitable habitat for birds in their gardens (Goddard et al., 2013). Emotions influence learning (Li et al., 2020), and if someone has a positive perception of birds, this could be a predictor of a higher level of bird species knowledge.

Another aspect of promoting species knowledge is engagement in activities related to animals. Participation in such activities may be a predictor of species knowledge due to the immersive nature of hands-on experiences, direct interactions, and self-directed exploration, which deepen understanding and facilitate informal learning (Randler, 2010; Schwichow et al., 2016). Furthermore, engagement in animal-related activities, participation in bird-related citizen science, and increased bird-related knowledge are mutually linked and together contribute to conservation efforts (Randler, 2021). Therefore, another aim is to investigate whether interest in birds, perceptions of birds (i.e. how much someone likes and values birds) and animal-related activities have an impact on adults’ species knowledge.

The current study addresses several limitations of previous studies. First, the species selection for the study is based on a complex selection procedure including rounds of expert review (Härtel et al., 2023b). This elaborate selection of 50 species sets the study apart from previous studies that have only surveyed a subset of 10–15 garden birds (e.g. Enzensberger et al., 2022). Second, an in-depth literature review was conducted to identify possible determinants and outcomes of species knowledge. Third, the study has a unique feature due to the remarkably high number of investigated participants and is, to our knowledge, one of the largest studies of species knowledge in the world.

Research aim and hypotheses

The current study aims to investigate key antecedents and outcomes of species knowledge, addressing important limitations of previous studies.

Specifically, it seeks to link species knowledge with environmental attitudes and connectedness to nature, as well as other variables such as individual interests, perceptions, and activities.

Based on the theoretical and empirical background, the following hypotheses were developed (Figure 1).

H1: Interest in birds positively influences species knowledge.

H2: The perception of birds positively influences species knowledge.

H3: Engaging in animal-related activities positively influences species knowledge.

H4: Connectedness to nature positively influences species knowledge.

H5: Species knowledge positively influences preservation.

H6: Species knowledge negatively influences utilization.

H7: Preservation and utilization are negatively correlated.

H8: Connectedness to nature positively influences preservation.

Figure 1. Hypothesized model of the relationships between species knowledge, its influential factors and preservation/utilization. H1 to H8 correspond to the hypotheses formulated. Double-headed arrows indicate hypothesized bidirectional relationships between variables, single-headed arrows indicate hypothesized unidirectional relationships.

Methods

Survey

The investigated variables were assessed using an online questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed throughout Germany from 25th October 2022 to 2nd June 2023. An access link was distributed via social media and the newsletter of various universities (Tübingen, Cologne, Bielefeld). Participants were additionally recruited via an online panel (WiSo Panel, wisopanel.net). A minimum age of 18 years was required for participation.

Demographic data

In total, 3438 people took part in the study. The distribution of the respondent’s demographic characteristics is shown in Table 1. More women than men participated in the study as well as a small number of diverse participants. The mean age of the respondents was 44.14 years (SE = 0.29 years), while most were 18–29 years and the fewest were 40–49 years old. Approximately one-third of the participants had an academic degree, while 19.4% had no academic degree and 49% did not answer the question. The survey was conducted throughout Germany. All postal codes whose first digit is a number from 1 to 9 were represented. Nearly one-third of the participants had a postal code beginning with 7, whereas participants with other first digits were evenly distributed. However, no people with postal code 0 took part in the survey. This applies to the federal states of Saxony, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia.

Table 1. Distribution of the respondent’s demographic characteristics (gender, age group, educational level, first digit of postal code).

	N	%
Gender
Male	1301	37.8
Female	2059	59.9
Diverse	42	1.2
No statement	36	1.0
Age Groups
18–29	938	27.3
30–39	536	15.6
40–49	501	14.6
50–59	631	18.4
60 or above	728	21.2
No statement	104	3
Educational level
With academic degree	1085	31.6
No academic degree	666	19.4
No statement	1687	49
First digit of the postal code
0	0	0
1	184	5.4
2	214	6.2
3	355	10.3
4	247	7.2
5	349	10.2
6	224	6.5
7	1050	30,5
8	211	6.1
9	275	8.0
No Statement	329	9.6

Questionnaire design

The questionnaire consisted of three parts. The first part of the questionnaire collected data on different demographic information, like age, gender, postal code, and education level. The second part included various questions in different answer formats, all taken from established reliable and valid scales. An overview of all variables and their respective items in the second part is given in Table 2. All items used were adopted from previous studies that have already implemented the items successfully (for references see Table 2). A visualized item and a scale consisting of 3 items were used for connectedness to nature. The third part consisted of 50 images of different bird species that are native to Germany (see supplementary material). To determine which species should be used for a species knowledge baseline, species selection was carried out in three successive steps: an analysis of bird-related data and two expert assessments (for details see Härtel et al., 2023b). The participants were asked to write the species name under each bird image. Alternatively, it was also possible to tick that one cannot name the species. To clarify the classification of the species in the taxonomy, an example picture of a Red-crested Pochard (Netta rufina) was used. The order in which the bird images were displayed to the participants was randomized. This randomization, together with the arrangement of the three parts of the questionnaire, ensures that a drop in motivation towards the end of the questionnaire does not affect overall performance in completing the items accurately.

Table 2. Means, standard errors, and measurement scales of the investigated variables and items.

Item	Item wording	M	SE	Measurement scale	Reference
Animal-related activity (A)
A1	I go out into nature to observe animals.	3.04	0.02	5-point Likert (ranging from ‘never’ to ‘very often’)	Randler (2010); Cox and Gaston (2016)
A2	I go to the zoo / Natural History Museum.	2.37	0.02
A3	I put up nesting boxes for birds.	2.36	0.02
A4	I feed birds in my garden / on my balcony.	2.51	0.02	MC
Interest in birds (I)
I1	I am interested in ornithology/science of birds.	3.21	0.02	5-point Likert (ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’)	Randler and Heil (2021)
I2	Birds are an important subject for me.	3.66	0.02
I3	Birds fascinate me.	3.79	0.02
Perception of birds (P)
P1	I value birds because they are pleasing to the eye.	4.17	0.02	5-point Likert (ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to strongly agree)	Belaire et al. (2015)
P2	I value birds because they have pleasant songs.	3.9	0.02
P3	I value birds because they make me feel better, physically, or mentally.	3.46	0.02
Connectedness to nature (CTN)
CTN1	Graphical visualization	4.72	0.02	7 images of overlapping circles labelled ‘me’ and ‘nature’, illustrating 7 levels of connectedness (ranging from complete separation to complete integration)	Kleespies et al. (2021)
CTN2	I feel connected to nature when I watch birds in my garden.	4.15	0.02	5-point Likert (ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’)	Cox and Gaston (2016)
CTN3	When I can recognize a particular individual, I feel more connected to it.	3.31	0.02
CTN4	I feel relaxed when I watch birds in my garden.	3.84	0.02
Preservation (PRE)
PRE1	I enjoy trips to the countryside – for example to forests or fields.	4.41	0.01	5-point Likert (ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’)	Barbosa et al. (2021) (Original: Bogner and Wiseman (1999))
PRE2	I would really enjoy sitting at the edge of a pond watching nature.	3.92	0.02
PRE3	I have a sense of well-being in the silence of nature.	4.43	0.01
Utilization (UTL)
UTL1	Plants and animals exist primarily to be used by humans.	1.76	0.02	5-point Likert (ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’)	Barbosa et al. (2021) (Original: Bogner and Wiseman (1999))
UTL2	Mankind should rule over the rest of the nature.	1.6	0.02
UTL3	Human beings are more important than other creatures.	1.96	0.02

Scoring of bird species knowledge

To assess species knowledge, we used partial credit coding. One point (1.0) was obtained for each correctly named species. Half a point (0.5) was given for naming the correct order, and in the case of songbirds, half a point (0.5) was given for naming the correct family. As many species have alternative names, these were also considered in the scoring.

Data analysis

To test the predicted hypotheses, a structural equation model (SEM) was calculated, using the R package lavaan (Rosseel, 2012). Structural equation modelling combines regression and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and considers the influence of interacting variables on theory-based hypotheses (Riha et al., 2021). Variables measured with a Likert scale were dealt as continuous variables according to Rhemtulla et al. (2012). As no multivariate normal distribution was given in the data set for the SEM, a robust maximum likelihood estimate by Yuan-Bentler was applied (MLR). Missing values in the dataset were handled by using full-information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimators. The item with the most missing values was the graphical visualization of connectedness to nature (1.3%; Figure 2).

Figure 2. Graphical visualization of the rating scale measuring connectedness to nature (CTN1). The participants were asked to tick the picture that most closely matches their connectedness to nature. As the mean value was between images 4 and 5 in the current study, they are circled in bold.

To implement the SEM, a two-step approach was used (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). For this purpose, the measurement model for example, the interaction of the latent variables with the observed variables – was verified for its validity in the first step. Therefore, a CFA has been carried out. In the second step, the structural model – for example, the interaction between the latent variables based on the hypotheses – was tested (Kim et al., 2020). The following ranges were used for the Fit Indices to indicate a good model fit: goodness-of-fit index (GFI) > 0.9, comparative fit index (CFI) > 0.9, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) < 0.08, and standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) < 0.08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Zinnbauer & Eberl, 2004).

The items of the species knowledge variable were split into parcels based on their factor loadings (items with the 10 highest loadings were assigned to the first parcel, etc.). This was done to reduce the number of observed variables of species knowledge, thereby reducing the complexity of the model and the likelihood of convergence problems in the analysis (Bandalos, 2002). According to Comrey and Lee (1992), the factor loadings of the species were all categorized between fair (≥ 0.45) and excellent (≥ 0.71). The species with the highest factor loading for species knowledge was the Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica) with 0.785. This shows that species such as the Barn Swallow are well suited to measuring species knowledge.

Results

Descriptive results

On average, participants achieved an identification score of 24.90 (SE = 0.23) out of 50 points. The minimum score was zero points while the maximum score was 50. That is, about 50% of the bird species were correctly identified at least at the family/order level.

Mean values and standard errors of all items except the ones of the species knowledge items are shown in Table 2. Regarding animal-related activities, most people reported going into nature regularly to observe animals. This was followed by zoo/natural history museum visits and setting up nesting boxes. The frequency of bird feeding in the garden ranged on average between ‘irregularly’ to ‘regularly’ in winter.

The participants were mainly interested in birds because they fascinated them. The item ‘I am interested in ornithology/science of birds’ received the least agreement compared to the other items on the interest scale.

Concerning the perception of birds, most people (82.4%) agreed (chose ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’) that they like birds because they are pleasing to the eye. The item that received the lowest level of agreement was ‘I value birds because they make me feel better, physically or mentally’.

Their connectedness to nature, which the participants were asked to depict through various images, was on average between images 4 and 5 with a tendency towards 5 (Figure 2). 81% of the participants agreed (chose ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’) that they feel connected to nature especially when watching garden birds.

Regarding preservation, the fact that one has a sense of well-being in the silence of nature received the highest level of agreement. This was also the highest-rated item compared to all other items on the questionnaire. The highest level of disagreement reached the item ‘Mankind should rule over the rest of the nature’, which is included in the utilization scale.

Figure 3 shows a boxplot of all variables. Preservation was the variable with the highest means (M = 4.25, SE = 0.01) compared with the other variables. Participants also like and value birds on a high level (M = 3.84, SE = 0.86), followed by their perceived connectedness to nature (M = 3.7, SE = 0.01), and their interest in birds (M = 3.56, SE = 0.02). The box of animal-related activities is partly and the box of utilization was fully in the lower half of the x-axis (activities: M = 2.76, SE = 0.02; utilization: M = 1.78, SE = 0.01). That is, the participants tend to engage in few such activities and anthropocentric attitudes (utilization) are less prevalent.

Figure 3. Boxplot of the following variables: Utilization (Md = 1.67); Animal-related activities (Md = 2.67); Interest in birds (Md = 3.67); Connectedness to nature (Md = 3.75); Perception of birds (Md = 4.00); Preservation (Md = 4.33).

Measurement model

The validity of the observed variables in relation to the latent variables was tested in one measurement model by using CFA. The fit indices of the measurement model were 0.933 for CFI, 0.986 for GFI, 0.069 for RMSEA, and 0.046 for SRMR, indicating a good model fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Zinnbauer & Eberl, 2004).

Most Items/Item-Parcels were above 0.71 (Table 3), which means that the latent variable has more than 50% in common with the factor. According to Comrey and Lee (1992), this can be classified as ‘excellent’. Seven items had factor loadings below 0.71 but were still in the good (≥ 0.55) to very good (≥ 0.63) category. Nine items fell into the fair (≥ 0.45) to poor (≥ 0.32) category, but to have enough items per scale, we decided to keep them. Only item AA2 was dropped from further calculations due to its very poor factor loading of 0.27.

Table 3. Factor loadings, squared value/variance, and Cronbach’s α of the items/scales.

Latent variable	Factor	Factor loading	Squared value/Variance	Cronbach’s α
Species knowledge	SK1	0.95	0.89	0.96
	SK2	0.95	0.90
	SK3	0.95	0.90
	SK4	0.90	0.81
	SK5	0.85	0.72
Interest in birds	IB1	0.86	0.74	0.89
	IB2	0.88	0.77
	IB3	0.83	0.69
Perception of birds	PB1	0.73	0.53	0.79
	PB2	0.74	0.55
	PB3	0.77	0.59
Animal-related activities	AA1	0.76	0.57	0.69 (without Item AA2)
	AA2	0.27	0.07
	AA3	0.58	0.33
	AA4	0.55	0.30
Connectedness to nature	CTN1	0.58	0.33	0.79
	CTN2	0.78	0.61
	CTN3	0.68	0.46
	CTN4	0.80	0.64
Preservation	PRE1	0.79	0.63	0.79
	PRE2	0.72	0.51
	PRE3	0.74	0.54
Utilization	UTL1	0.65	0.43	0.77
	UTL2	0.89	0.79
	UTL3	0.66	0.43

In addition, Cronbach’s α was calculated for each construct (Table 3) to confirm their reliability. According to Hinton et al. (2004), the coefficient of species knowledge indicates a very high internal consistency of the construct. Animal-related activities had a Cronbach’s α of 0.69, which can be interpreted as ‘moderate’. The alpha coefficients of the other constructs ranged from 0.77 (utilization) to 0.89 (interest in birds), indicating a high internal consistency (Hinton et al., 2004).

Both, the fit indices, and the factor loadings, as well as the Cronbach’s α coefficient showed that the measurement model is well suited for developing the SEM in the next step.

Structural model

The structural model was calculated to address the hypotheses that have been proposed (Figure 1). The fit indices of the resulting SEM demonstrated a good fit with the data (CFI = 0.960, GFI = 0.995, RMSEA = 0.068, SRMR = 0.038). The overall model explains 41.3% of the variance in bird species knowledge. Furthermore, 47.5% of the variance in preservation as well as 6.8% in utilization are explained by the SEM.

As hypothesized, interest in birds and animal-related activities can serve as a significant predictor of species knowledge (interest in birds: β = 0.663, p < 0.001; animal-related activities: β = 0.116, p < 0.001). The perception of birds significantly predicted species knowledge, but it is a negative relationship (β = −0.123, p < 0.001). No significant effect of connectedness to nature on species knowledge was found (β = 0.029, p = 0.189).

Species knowledge itself can serve to predict preservation on a significant level (β = 0.177, p < 0.001). This means that people with higher species knowledge also have more eco-centric attitudes. Moreover, species knowledge was negatively associated with utilization, indicating lesser anthropocentric attitudes for people with higher species knowledge (β = −0.260, p < 0.001). A negative but significant correlation existed between utilization and preservation (r = −0.135, p < 0.001). Connectedness to nature showed a positive significant effect on preservation (β = 0.766, p < 0.001). In Figure 4, all direct associations are displayed.

Figure 4. Structural equation model. Oval boxes represent latent variables. Numerical values indicate the standardized multiple regression coefficients (β) for one-sided or Pearson correlation coefficients (r) for reciprocal relationships. These coefficients describe the strength of the influence. Double-headed arrows indicate bidirectional relationships between latent variables, single-headed arrows indicate unidirectional relationships. Significant relationships are indicated by *.

In summary, more animal-related activities and a higher interest in birds contribute to a higher bird species knowledge. Therefore, H1 and H2 can be accepted. However, H3 and H4 must be rejected because the perception of birds had a negative effect on bird species knowledge, and connectedness to nature had no significant effect. Bird species knowledge itself had, as predicted, a positive influence on preservation and a negative one on utilization, implying H5 and H6 to be accepted. H7 can be accepted as well because of the significant negative correlation between preservation and utilization. At last, H8 can also be confirmed due to the positive effect of connectedness to nature on bird species knowledge.

Discussion

This study aimed to establish a link between species knowledge and environmental attitudes, as well as connectedness to nature, considering additional variables such as individual interests, perceptions, and activities. Here, we extended bird species knowledge research by using an SEM to estimate the direction and strength of various dependent variables. The knowledge score of around 50% is in line with previous research (Enzensberger et al., 2022; Randler & Heil, 2021), suggesting that participants’ knowledge levels do not deviate significantly towards either low or high extremes. The model, based on hypotheses derived from theory and previous studies, fitted the data by identifying significant pathways, achieving good model fit and a satisfactory level of variance. In essence, the high levels of total variance in bird species knowledge and preservation of nature, indicating robust predictive power. However, the relatively low total variance in the utilization of nature suggests that anthropocentric attitudes might be better explained by other variables, such as negative attitudes towards robots and positive associations with religiosity centrality and right-wing authoritarianism (Fortuna et al., 2023).

Interest in birds and animal-related activities can serve as a positive predictor of bird species knowledge, a relationship supported by findings from previous studies (e.g. Palmberg et al., 2015; Randler, 2010). This underscores the importance of interest as a key predictor of species knowledge. This observation aligns with the concept of achievement emotions, especially interest, which refers to the emotional responses associated with achievement-related activities, such as studying, and the outcomes of these activities, encompassing both success and failure (Pekrun et al., 2002). The impact of interest in birds is further illuminated by its role in shaping the perceived importance and value of the subject matter, thereby influencing achievement emotions (Gläser-Zikuda et al., 2005). Individuals are more likely to invest effort in cognitive learning when they perceive the subject matter as interesting (Ainley et al., 2002). Consequently, environmental education could enhance species identification by introducing bird species that capture people’s interest (Pany, 2014). Participation in animal-related activities, such as feeding birds in the garden, was also associated with higher species knowledge in previous studies (Cox & Gaston, 2015). By providing hands-on learning, participation in animal-related activities can improve a person’s ability to identify species (Schwichow et al., 2016).

Surprisingly, the perception of birds had a significant negative effect on bird species knowledge, suggesting that personal experience may lead to cognitive biases or misconceptions that shape individuals’ perceptions without necessarily increasing accurate species knowledge (Stammers, 2018). Furthermore, the findings of Cox and Gaston (2015) for non-songbirds, highlight that increased liking can paradoxically be associated with decreased species knowledge. Besides interest, further individual prepositions can affect knowledge about bird species and further investigated variables in the current study. Among professional birders, a study by Randler et al. (2023) showed that skill/knowledge was negatively correlated with the Big Five personality trait of ‘neuroticism’. Moreover, people with high levels of the Big Five personality trait ‘agreeableness’ show a higher positive affect towards emotions and moods, which is often seen as one quality of interest (Smillie et al., 2015). As a result, they are more likely to conform to social expectations and be more positive about certain issues, but this is independent of their actual knowledge (Sheese & Graziano, 2004). Future studies should investigate whether such personality traits influence the perception of birds. For example, individuals high in ‘agreeableness’ may exhibit high perception combined with low knowledge due to positive affect and conformity to social expectations (Smillie et al., 2015).

Connectedness to nature did not influence bird species knowledge, contrasting to the weak but significant correlation found by Roczen et al. (2014) between connectedness to nature and environmental knowledge. Individuals who enjoy activities such as walking or gardening may have a strong connection to nature, but this does not necessarily translate into learning about the specific species within these environments. Guided field trips are recommended to ensure effective learning as a way to feel connected to and experience nature (Jones & Washko, 2022).

Connectedness to nature was, on the other hand, a strong predictor of preservation, suggesting that individuals who feel strongly connected to nature tend to hold more eco-centric environmental attitudes. As reviewed by DeVille et al. (2021), many other studies point out this relationship. In fostering this connectedness, the importance of childhood exposure to nature is highlighted due to its role in shaping individuals’ deep affinity for nature (Aziz & Said, 2012). In the current study, the median of connectedness to nature is in the upper third of the Likert scale (Figure 3), which means that the participants are characterized by a high level of nature connectedness per se. This observation is in line with a growing trend in recent studies, indicating a general tendency for the public to become more connected to nature (Oh et al., 2020).

Bird species knowledge emerged as a crucial factor in predicting environmental attitudes, particularly concerning preservation. Härtel et al. (2023a) demonstrated a positive influence of species knowledge and students’ environmental attitudes. Notably, this relationship also extends to adults, dispelling any speculation about a link between the two variables (Gerl et al., 2018; Leather & Quicke, 2010). Knowing bird species becomes a practical way to foster ecocentric attitudes, allowing individuals to actively contribute to biodiversity awareness and conservation (Hooykaas et al., 2019).

Consistent with other studies, preservation and utilization were found to be correlated in the current study (Milfont & Duckitt, 2006; Nkaizirwa et al., 2022). The 2-MEV framework allows for an integrated set of values that may, but do not have to, include both preservation and utilization of natural resources (Boeve-de Pauw & Van Petegem, 2013), emphasizing that supporting preservation does not necessarily mean rejecting utilization.

Limitations

However, it’s important to note some limitations of our study. There may be a participation bias, as people who are involved in ornithological issues may be more willing to participate and may have a higher level of interest, for example, than others. As participation is voluntary, this bias is difficult to overcome. Furthermore, it is important to acknowledge potential limitations regarding the inferred causal relationships, although our computed SEM demonstrates robust predictive power. The identified and literature-based unidirectional pathways between variables suggest strong associations, but it cannot be excluded that bidirectional links or feedback loops may also exist within the system. Longitudinal studies over several years would be essential to establish causality conclusively. Such longitudinal research would provide deeper insights into the temporal dynamics of the relationships between variables, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved.

Conclusion

In summary, this study highlights the crucial role of bird species knowledge in shaping environmental attitudes, particularly towards the preservation of nature. We identified significant pathways, highlighting the positive influence of interest in birds and engagement in animal-related activities on species knowledge. This provides an important insight into how species knowledge can be promoted in the future. However, the unexpected negative effect of the perception of birds underscores the complexity of personal biases in environmental education. While connectedness to nature doesn’t directly affect bird species knowledge, it emerges as a strong predictor of preservation, suggesting a link between the perceived connectedness to nature and ecocentric attitudes.

In conclusion, promoting species knowledge is essential for raising awareness and sustainable development. It does not only enrich individuals’ understanding of nature but also empowers them to actively contribute to biodiversity conservation, in line with efforts to achieve a more sustainable and eco-centric future.

Ethics statement

The study has been granted ethical permission by the ethics committee of the Faculty of Social Sciences and Economics of the University of Tübingen (AZ: A2.5.4-237_bi).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

On request from authors.