Investigating the role of parental involvement in enhancing academic performance of tertiary students: evidence from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi

Abstract

Using quantitative approach, this paper investigates whether parental involvement play any role in improving students’ academic performance at the tertiary levels in the Ghanaian context utilizing primary data and a standard statistical method known as ordinary least squares regression. A total sample of 613 students from Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) was used for the analysis. With regard to the variable measurement, academic performance is measured using the students’ cumulative weighted average. Again, this paper uses three measures for parental involvement – parents visiting their wards on university campus, calling them to check up on them regularly and encouraging them to perform better in academics. The results reveal that there is a significant positive relationship between the measures of parental involvement and students’ academic performance. Specifically, parents visiting their wards regularly, encouraging them and calling to check up improve academic performance by 0.005, 0.061 and 0.046 respectively. A significant negative relationship between age and academic performance is also revealed. There is also a significant positive relationship between belonging to a group and academic performance. The implication of the findings is that parents should as a matter of importance pay attention to their role by visiting, calling and encouraging their wards while they are on university campus. Doing these has the potential to improve the academic performance of their wards as revealed in this paper.

Keywords:

• Students’ academic performance
• parental involvement
• tertiary education
• Ghana

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Stephen Darwin, Universidad Alberto Hurtado, Chile

SUBJECTS:

• Adult Education and Lifelong Learning
• Higher Education
• School Psychology
• Sociology of Education
• Educational Psychology
• Education - Social Sciences

1. Introduction

The nature of tertiary education in Ghana has been evolving over the years. As of 2018, there were 198 tertiary educations in Ghana, comprising 114 public and 86 private tertiary institutions (National Council for Tertiary Education, 2018). According to Sasu (2023), in 2022, 635,000 students were enrolled in tertiary education in Ghana, which represents an increase compared to the previous year. These students pursued higher education in various institutions across the country. Public tertiary education institutions accounted for 88% of the total student population, while the remaining 12% were enrolled in private tertiary education institutions. Data from the World Bank’s World Development Indicators indicates that School enrollment, tertiary (% gross) in Ghana was 20.39% (World Bank, 2024). One basic challenge facing Ghanaian tertiary education graduates is unemployment. For instance, according to 2023 Ghana Statistical Service Quarterly Labor Force Statistics Bulletin, around 22.3% of individuals who experienced unemployment periods exceeding 20 months from the first quarter of 2022 to the third quarter of 2023 were graduates of tertiary education programs (Zurek, 2024). Another issue identified among tertiary students in Ghana is the subpar academic performance of some students and this challenge has been linked to insufficient parental involvement in their children’s education at the tertiary level (Adelabu & Mncube, 2023; Fiagborlo & Kunu, 2016). In an attempt to address this issue, there is the need to investigate the effects of parental involvement in Ghanaian tertiary education, which forms the basis of this study.

The transition from high school to the university marks a crucial phase in a student’s educational journey, and this demands adjustment and adaptation to new academic and social environments (Tinto, 2017). During this pivotal period, parental involvement continues to play a crucial role in shaping students’ experiences and outcomes (Fernandez et al., 2018; Hanif & Alwi, 2019; Lemessa et al., 2023). During students’ higher education journey, they experience various challenges and transitional phases, and for that matter the presence and support of parents become paramount in shaping their overall development (Pribesh et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2020; Tan et al., 2020; Torrecilla & Hernández-Castilla, 2020).

Some studies have highlighted the positive relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement of students (Ayala & Manzano, 2018; Burns et al., 2019; Chowa et al., 2013; Dahie et al., 2018; Gonzalez-DeHass, 2019; Mahuro & Hungi, 2016; Murray et al., 2014; Odira et al., 2021; Strømme & Helland, 2020). The academic benefits of parental visits stem from the emotional support, encouragement, and motivation provided by parents during these interactions. Face-to-face discussions about academic progress, career aspirations, and future plans create a sense of accountability and responsibility in students (Gonzalez-DeHass, 2019; Gonzalez & Koford, 2019; Hanif & Alwi, 2019; Odira et al., 2021). The active involvement of parents in their children’s education fosters a supportive environment that encourages them to stay committed to their academic goals (Ates, 2021; Evans et al., 2017; Smith et al., 2020).

A parent is defined as an individual who has legal, biological, or social responsibility for the care and upbringing of a child (McHale & Lindahl, 2011). Anyone who assumes the responsibility of nurturing or taking care of a child has the status of a parent. According to Santrock (2016), a parent is a primary caregiver who assumes the responsibility for nurturing and guiding a child’s physical, emotional, and social development. That is, the act of providing physical protection, emotional and social protection is parenting and the actor is termed as parent. Similarly, Hetherington et al. (1999) describe a parent as a person who fulfills the role of a mother or father and provides emotional support, guidance, and supervision to their children.

Given the definition of parent above, it can be deduced that the role a parent plays in a child’s educational pursuit is inevitable. Parents actively engage with their children’s educational life by providing guidance, and fostering emotional support or connectedness, which tends to impact positively on the student’s overall well-being and academic achievements (Santrock, 2016).

Academic achievement is the successful completion of educational tasks and attainment of learning outcomes, such as grades, test scores, and academic awards (Márquez Rosano et al., 2022; Rojas‐Drummond et al., 2014). Academic achievement is also described as the demonstration of a student’s knowledge, skills, and competencies in various academic subjects and disciplines (Ozcan, 2021). The goal of every student is to excel in every aspect of their academic endeavor, including examinations, quizzes and debates, among others. It is asserted that a child’s academic achievement is dependent on parent’s effort (Hanif & Alwi, 2019; Odira et al., 2021). Many students could write properly due to the charcoal writing tutorial provided by their parents. However, a parental visit to their children while in school is relevant as it provides encouragement and reinforcement for students to continue striving for academic excellence (Lemessa et al., 2023; Mahuro & Hungi, 2016).

Some related studies on Ghana and other parts of the world have been conducted with regard to the role of parental involvement in academic performance of students. However, the focus has been on basic, junior and high schools (Appiah-Kubi & Amoako, 2020; Ayisi-Boateng et al., 2022; Baidoo-Anu et al., 2019; Boateng et al., 2021; Chowa et al., 2013; Donkor, 2023; Kwarteng et al., 2022). Again, the focus of parental involvement of these studies has not been on parental visit, calling and encouragement as this present study focuses on. Given the importance of tertiary education – training and development of human capital, it is therefore imperative to investigate the potential effect of parental involvement on students’ academic performance. This will help in designing and implementing policies aimed at improving academic performance at the tertiary level. More importantly, improving academic performance is essential because it enhances human capital development which is also a prerequisite for economic growth and development as postulated by economic growth theories (see for example, Lucas, 1988, Romer, 1986).

To this end, the objective of this present study is to examine the effect of parental involvement on the academic performance of university students with evidence from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi - Ghana. Based on this objective, the research question that guides this present study is ‘does parental involvement in terms of visiting, calling, and encouragement significantly affect the academic performance of tertiary students?’

This paper focuses on Ghana because studies on Ghana that examine this relationship at the tertiary level rarely exist and therefore there is a gap in the literature that needs to be filled and this paper seeks to fulfil that. Some past studies have examined this relationship on Ghana but the focus has been on Senior High Schools (Boateng et al., 2021), Junior High Schools (Ayisi-Boateng et al., 2022; Baidoo-Anu et al., 2019; Chowa et al., 2013; Kwarteng et al., 2022) and primary schools (Appiah-Kubi & Amoako, 2020; Donkor, 2023). Given this, the present paper makes some contributions to the literature. First, it adds to the literature on parental involvement and academic performance of students at the tertiary levels. In addition, some of the past studies focused on parenting styles such as being more or less authoritative (see, Ayisi-Boateng et al., 2022; Baidoo-Anu et al., 2019) whereas others also focused on parents’ participation such as attending Parent Teachers Association (PTA) meetings, helping in homework and paying school fees (see, Appiah-Kubi & Amoako, 2020).

From the literature reviewed, parental involvement in their wards education has a profound impact on their academic performance (Boateng et al., 2021; Lemessa et al., 2023). However parents of tertiary students overlook these responsibilities such as visiting, calling and encouraging as they presume that students at the tertiary level are adult enough to cater for themselves (Boonk et al., 2018). As such, this present paper looks at parental involvement from the perspective of visiting students while on university campus, encouraging them to do well in their academic pursuit and calling to check up on them regularly. Therefore, the findings will help in the designing and implementation of policies that are likely to encourage parents’ involvement in their wards educations which in turn would promote academic success and socio-psychological wellbeing among university students.

The remainder of the paper proceeds as follows. The next section is devoted to literature review and this is followed by the methodology this paper adopts to achieve its objective. The fourth section focuses on the results and discussion and the last section provides conclusion of the study.

2. Literature review

2.1. Dimensions of parental involvement

2.1.1. Visiting

Lee et al. (2021) assert that visiting the child’s school or college is a direct and tangible way for parents to engage with their child’s educational environment. That is, this involvement allows parents to gain firsthand insights into the child’s academic progress, social interactions and overall well-being. Hanif and Alwi (2019) emphasised the positive impact of parental visits on student motivation, behaviour, and academic performance. Hanif and Alwi (2019) assert that when parents actively participate in school visits, they demonstrate to their children the value they place on education and the importance of collaboration between home and school. This collaboration creates a supportive ecosystem that contributes to the child’s sense of belonging and academic engagement (Kaukab, 2016).

Moreover, research has shown that visiting allows parents to interact with teachers and school staff, fostering open communication channels (Naite, 2021). This communication facilitates discussions about the child’s progress, areas of improvement, and strategies for enhancing learning experiences. Naite (2021) highlights the role of such communication in strengthening parent-teacher partnerships and promoting students’ achievement. Therefore, the reviewed literature prove that by actively engaging with their child’s educational journey through visits, parents contribute significantly to creating supportive learning environments and fostering positive academic outcomes.

2.1.2. Encouragement

Kishor (2014) defines parental encouragement to encompass providing emotional support, motivation and positive reinforcement to foster a conducive learning environment. Studies have highlight the significant impact of parental encouragement on children’s academic performance and overall well-being. For instance, Lawrence and Barathi (2016) emphasise the crucial role of parental encouragement in shaping children’s beliefs about their academic abilities. Thus, when parents express confidence in their children’s capabilities and encourage them to pursue their interests, children are more likely to develop a growth mindset and exhibit higher levels of motivation and resilience. This positive reinforcement fosters a sense of self-efficacy and a willingness to take on academic challenges (Lawrence & Barathi, 2016). Additionally, research has shown that, parental encouragement is linked to improved school engagement and achievement (Gonzalez & Koford, 2019). That is, children whose parents regularly expressed interest in their education and provided encouragement show higher levels of school attendance, participation in extracurricular activities and academic success (Naite, 2021).

2.1.3. Calling of ward

Calling the ward stands out as a direct form of engagement that could have significant positive effects on a child’s educational journey. Research consistently highlights the importance of parental communication in shaping a child’s academic outcomes (Bryan et al., 2020). A study by Jaiswal and Choudhuri (2017) found that regular communication between parents and children about school-related matters was associated with higher levels of academic achievement. Similarly, the study revealed that parental involvement, including communication had a moderate positive effect on students’ academic performance across various grade levels. Additionally, calling the ward serves several critical purposes in enhancing parental involvement in education (Kaukab, 2016). It allows parents to stay informed about their child’s progress, challenges, and achievements in school. Frequent communication enables parents to identify areas where their child may need additional support or resources, leading to timely interventions and academic success (Bryan et al., 2020; Kaukab, 2016). Calling wards on campus can create a supportive educational environment that nurtures children’s growth and development.

2.2. Theoretical underpinning

The relationship between parental involvement and students’ academic performance can be explained by the theory of parental involvement by Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler (1995) and the social capital theory by Bourdieu (1986). Parental involvement theory opines that parental involvement which can take the form of encouragement, modelling, reinforcement and instruction promote child’s education which is ultimately measured by the performance of the child in school. The theory of parental involvement posits that parents’ decisions regarding involvement were primarily shaped by their beliefs about what they ought to and can contribute to their child’s education (Gregorović Belaić, 2021; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995). These beliefs were represented by two key concepts: parental role construction for involvement and parental self-efficacy for aiding the child’s academic success (Gregorović Belaić, 2021; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995).

Parental role construction for involvement in children’s education can be best understood as parents’ perceptions of their responsibilities related to their child’s educational journey (Gregorović Belaić, 2021; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995). This construct serves as a motivator for parental involvement by helping parents envision and prepare for how they might engage in various activities that are crucial to their child’s educational achievements. Consequently, role construction shapes student outcomes by delineating the spectrum of activities parents view as significant, essential, and permissible for their active participation in their child’s schooling (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995). Self-efficacy on the other hand refers to the belief in one’s ability to take actions that lead to desired results and has been recognised as a significant factor influencing goal setting, effort, perseverance, and ultimate goal attainment (Bandura, 1997; Gregorović Belaić, 2021). Hence, self-efficacy provides insight into how beliefs about capabilities influence personal conduct. Moreover, it emphasises the importance of understanding parental involvement from a psychological standpoint: comprehending parents’ actions necessitates understanding the beliefs that underpin and guide their behaviours.

Applied to parental involvement in children’s education, the self-efficacy theory suggests that parents’ engagement is influenced in part by their expectations of the outcomes of their actions and their assessment of their own abilities (Gregorović Belaić, 2021; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995). For instance, Nelson (2019) explored parents’ views on parental involvement in an elementary school and discovered that parents who believe their involvement positively impacts their child are more inclined to undertake diverse involvement tasks compared to those who doubt their impact. Furthermore, a positive sense of self-efficacy enables a more proactive understanding of one’s parental contributions to their child’s learning, as noted by some parents (Nelson, 2019). In addition, because self-efficacy for aiding the child’s success influences parental objectives and perseverance, it is likely to shape parents’ beliefs about their responsibilities as well as their choices regarding involvement, especially in uncertain or discouraging circumstances (Gregorović Belaić, 2021; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995). In relation to this paper, this theory implies that when parents get involved in their children’s education – by visiting them while on campus, calling to check up and encouraging then on their academic pursuit, there is a tendency for academic performance to be improved. This assumption is supported by the social capital theory.

The social capital theory emphasises the significance of social networks and relationships in shaping individuals’ access to resources and opportunities (Bandura, 1997; Hunter et al., 2019). One of the main arguments of Bourdieu’s social capital theory is that social connections and networks are associated with tangible benefits, such as economic advantages, educational opportunities, and social support. These benefits are not solely based on an individual’s own characteristics or efforts but are also influenced by their social ties and the resources embedded within those networks (Bandura, 1997; Hunter et al., 2019). Bourdieu distinguishes between different forms of capital, including economic capital (financial resources), cultural capital (knowledge, skills, and education), and social capital (social connections and networks). Social capital, according to Bourdieu, operates through social relationships, trust, norms, and reciprocity within a community or social group (Bandura, 1997; Hunter et al., 2019). Individuals who have strong social capital are more likely to access valuable information, job opportunities, social support, and other advantages compared to those with weaker social connections (RogoÅ & BaranoviÄ, 2016).

In relation to this study, this means that students who have parents actively engaged in their education may benefit from access to resources such as academic guidance, emotional support and material resources like books or educational tools; these resources contribute to improved academic performance. Again, social capital involves trust and support within social networks (Asquith & Asquith, 2019; Bandura, 1997). In the context of this study, this implies that when parents are actively involved in their children’s education, they often provide a supportive environment that fosters confidence, motivation and a positive attitude toward learning. This support is crucial in enhancing students’ academic performance by creating a conducive learning atmosphere (RogoÅ & BaranoviÄ, 2016). Additionally, social networks facilitate the flow of information and opportunities (Asquith & Asquith, 2019; Bandura, 1997). Relating this to the present study, the implication is that parents who are involved in their children’s education may have access to information about educational programs, scholarships or extracurricular activities that could benefit their children academically. They may also have connections with educators or mentors who could provide guidance and support to students (RogoÅ & BaranoviÄ, 2016). Moreover, the social capital theory posits that when parents are actively involved in their children’s education, their performance tend to improve. This is because, the involvement provides emotional support, encouragement and conducive learning environment and this tend to enhance academic performance. Again, when parents get involved in their children’s education through visitation, calling and encouragement, it motivates them to study harder which in turn promote academic performance.

2.3. Empirical review

The influence of parental involvement in the form of visits, encouragement and calling on university students’ academic performance emerges as an intriguing subject of exploration, encapsulating the ways in which familial engagement and support intersect with academic success (Smith et al., 2020). Understanding the dynamics of how parental involvement impact academic performance holds significance not only for students and their families but also for educational institutions striving to optimise students’ learning experiences and outcomes.

Globally, the issue of parental involvement in university students’ academic performance has garnered significant attention, particularly in nations such as the United States and Europe (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Sakamoto, 2020). In the United States, research has shown that parental involvement in the areas of calling, visiting and encouraging their children during college years remains influential, shaping students’ academic success and well-being (Sakamoto, 2020). In addition, a meta-synthesis study by Wilder (2023) emphasises the impact of parental engagement on students’ overall college experience, leading to higher academic achievement and greater satisfaction. Similarly, Universities in Europe known for their diverse student populations and varied cultural backgrounds, have also acknowledged the role of parental support in enhancing academic performance and student engagement (Bacigalupo et al., 2016). At the global scene, the significance of parental involvement in university students’ academic performance cannot be belittled.

Within Africa, specific countries such as Nigeria and Mozambique have shown a growing interest in understanding the impact of parental involvement on university students’ academic performance. For instance, Olufemi et al. (2018) examined the factors affecting students’ academic performance in colleges of education in Southwest, Nigeria and indicated that parental support and guidance play a pivotal role in students’ academic achievement and psychological well-being, contributing to their persistence and success. Additionally, Silva et al. (2021) in their study on Mozambique, where higher education faces unique challenges, parental involvement (in the areas of visiting and encouragement) has been found to foster a sense of belonging and social integration among students from diverse backgrounds, positively affecting their academic outcomes. Furthermore, this study on Mozambique has underscored the need for comprehensive parental support, encompassing emotional, academic, and financial aspects, to enhance students’ performance and retention. In Ghana, a nation with a rich cultural heritage, parental involvement remains integral to students’ educational pursuits. Studies (such as Appiah-Kubi & Amoako, 2020; Ayisi-Boateng et al., 2022; Baidoo-Anu et al., 2019; Boateng et al., 2021; Donkor, 2023; Kwarteng et al., 2022) have documented the significance role parental involvement (such as assisting in home work, encouraging and calling students) plays in academic performance of students in basic and secondary schools.

It must also be emphasised that while parental involvement through visits and regular calling can be emotionally rewarding, they may also lead to distractions for students (Hill & Tyson, 2009). For instance, engaging in family activities and spending time with parents during visits and time spent on phone might divert students’ attention from their academic responsibilities. Consequently, students may have less time for studying and completing assignments, which will in turn affect their academic performance negatively (Hill & Tyson, 2009). For some students, parental involvement can bring increased academic pressure on them, because they will have to do more to impress their parents. This pressure can lead to performance anxiety, where students become overly concerned about meeting perceived academic standards, and this hinders their ability to perform at their best (Yazawa et al., 2019).

In general, the strength of the papers reviewed lies in exploration of different aspects of parental involvement and its potential impact on academic performance. Some perspectives of parental involvement like attending PTA meetings, helping in homework and paying school fees as this paper mentions earlier in the introduction section, has been explored. However, other equally important aspects of parental involvement such as visiting tertiary students on university campus, calling them regularly to check up and encouraging them to perform better have been rarely explored. This is one limitation or gap in the literature of which this present paper seeks to fill.

3. Methodology

This section is devoted to the methodology this paper adopts to achieve the objective. It is divided into three sections; the first section discusses the data and estimation strategy whereas the second section is devoted to the model specification. The last section presents the description of the variables.

3.1. Data and estimation strategy

This paper utilises primary data and the ordinary least squares technique is employed for the analysis. Structured questionnaire was used to obtain information on tertiary students at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi-Ghana. The questionnaire was structured into two main sections. The first section captured information on the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. Academic performance related information were also captured in this section. The second section captured information on parental involvement. Some of the information elicited include age, sex, lecture and tutorial attendance, cumulative weighted average (CWA), whether their parents visit them, check their examination results and whether the students live with both parents (see the Appendix A for the complete questionnaire used for the data collection). The undergraduate students population of KNUST as at 2021/2022 academic year was 66,911 (excluding students of Institute of Distance Learning). Out of this figure, 40,709 are males and 26,202 are females and these represent 60.84% and 39.16% respectively (KNUST., 2023). The division of this number according to the six colleges of the university are as follows: College of Science (9,905), College of Engineering (10,705), College of Agriculture and Natural Resources (6,819), College of Art and Built Environment (15,266), College of Health Sciences (8,443) and College of Humanities and Social Sciences (15,813).

This paper uses two stage sampling technique for the data collection. In the first stage, the students are grouped according the six colleges the university has. Afterwards, the simple random sampling method is employed to select students from each college. The use of the simple random sampling technique ensures that each student in the six colleges has equal opportunity to be selected for participation in the study. Hence, issue of possible bias is avoided.

Due to financial constraint, 120 questionnaires were printed for administration in each of the colleges; this gives a total of 720 questionnaires for the analysis. However, after data cleaning a total of 613 completed questionnaires (College of Art and Built Environment – 102, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources – 103, College of Engineering – 101, College of Health Sciences – 100, College of Humanities and Social Sciences – 104 and College of Science – 103) were used for the analysis and this gives a response rate of about 85%. The self-administered approach to questionnaire administration is employed because all the students could read, understand and write in English which is the language used for the designing of the questionnaire; the students are given the questionnaire to fill by themselves. The questionnaire was designed using open-ended questions.

Before the administration of the final questionnaire to the students in the six colleges mentioned, a pilot survey was conducted to ensure that the questions on the questionnaire are clear as much as possible to enhance better responses. In this regard, a sample of 50 students from the Institute of Distance Learning ([IDL] - which is not part of the six colleges) were selected to fill the questionnaire. Afterwards, ambiguous questions were restructured. Other necessary adjustments were made to ensure that better and adequate responses were obtained from the respondents. Also, the final questionnaire was given to some experts (in questionnaire designing) to review; this improved the questionnaire. This also ensured reliability and validity of the questionnaire for the data collection. The period for the questionnaire administration is from 1^st August to 31^st August 2023.

This study also ensured standard ethical considerations to guarantee confidentiality of the respondents. Before the commencement of the data collection, an explicit consent from all participants was sought. The researchers clearly explained the purpose, procedures, potential risks and benefits of the study to participants before they agreed to participate. This informed consent ensured that participants fully understood their involvement in the research and have the sovereignty to decide whether or not to participate without coercion. The researchers also made it known to the respondents that they have the right to opt out at any point in time in relation to responding to the questions. Furthermore, to ensure confidentiality and anonymity of the respondents, the participants were assured that their identity or any information such as age, index number, academic result and any other personal information that is likely to reveal their identity will not be captured in the analysis. As such, in the data analysis, no information on the respondents which had the potential of revealing their identity was reported.

In terms of the presentation and estimation of results, a frequency table is used to represent the students’ demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and the ordinary least squares technique is utilised to investigate the relationship between parental involvement and students’ academic performance. The ordinary least squares technique is deemed appropriate given the continuous nature of the dependent variable (Asteriou & Hall, 2011; Greene, 2012). The dependent variable which is academic performance is measured using students’ cumulative weighted average (CWA). Furthermore, to guarantee that the results for this paper are robust and reliable, diagnostic tests such as multicollinearity test is performed using the pairwise correlation test. According to Greene (2012) and past authors (such as Baidoo et al., 2018; Baidoo & Akoto, 2019; Baidoo et al., 2020; Sakyi et al., 2021), a correlation coefficient (between two independent variables) of less than 0.5 is assumed not to pose multicollinearity threat.

3.2. Model specification

This paper specifies Equation (1)(1) $$\mathit{\text{AP}}={\alpha }_i+\gamma {\mathit{\text{PINV}}}_i+\vartheta X_i+{\epsilon }_i$$(1) for estimation. (1) $$\mathit{\text{AP}}={\alpha }_i+\gamma {\mathit{\text{PINV}}}_i+\vartheta X_i+{\epsilon }_i$$(1) where $\mathit{\text{AP}}$ is the dependent variable and denotes academic performance measured by the cumulative weighted average (CWA) of students, $\mathit{\text{PINV}}$ represents parental involvement and it is the independent variable of interest. Parental involvement in this paper focuses on three perspectives – parental visit (PAVI), calling wards to check up on them (CALL), and encouraging their wards (ENC). $X$ represents a vector of control variables including belonging to group on campus (GROUP), gender (GEN), age (AGE), tutorial attendance (TATT), person the student live with (PLW), and students having personal study schedule (PSS). $\gamma$ is the coefficient of parental involvement and $\vartheta$ represents the coefficients of the control variables. $\alpha$ and $\epsilon$ denote the constant term and the error term, respectively.

Equation (1)(1) $$\mathit{\text{AP}}={\alpha }_i+\gamma {\mathit{\text{PINV}}}_i+\vartheta X_i+{\epsilon }_i$$(1) is expanded to capture the three independent variables of interest as well as the control variables and this is specified in Equation (2)(2) $$\mathit{\text{AP}}={\alpha }_i+{\gamma }_1{\mathit{\text{PAVI}}}_i+{\gamma }_2{\mathit{\text{CALL}}}_i+{\gamma }_3{\mathit{\text{ENC}}}_i+{\vartheta }_1{\mathit{\text{GROUP}}}_i+{\vartheta }_2{\mathit{\text{GEN}}}_i+{\vartheta }_3{\mathit{\text{AGE}}}_i+{\vartheta }_4{\mathit{\text{TATT}}}_i+{\vartheta }_5{\mathit{\text{PLW}}}_i+{\vartheta }_6{\mathit{\text{PSS}}}_i+{\epsilon }_i$$(2) . (2) $$\mathit{\text{AP}}={\alpha }_i+{\gamma }_1{\mathit{\text{PAVI}}}_i+{\gamma }_2{\mathit{\text{CALL}}}_i+{\gamma }_3{\mathit{\text{ENC}}}_i+{\vartheta }_1{\mathit{\text{GROUP}}}_i+{\vartheta }_2{\mathit{\text{GEN}}}_i+{\vartheta }_3{\mathit{\text{AGE}}}_i+{\vartheta }_4{\mathit{\text{TATT}}}_i+{\vartheta }_5{\mathit{\text{PLW}}}_i+{\vartheta }_6{\mathit{\text{PSS}}}_i+{\epsilon }_i$$(2) where the parameters and variables in Equation (2)(2) $$\mathit{\text{AP}}={\alpha }_i+{\gamma }_1{\mathit{\text{PAVI}}}_i+{\gamma }_2{\mathit{\text{CALL}}}_i+{\gamma }_3{\mathit{\text{ENC}}}_i+{\vartheta }_1{\mathit{\text{GROUP}}}_i+{\vartheta }_2{\mathit{\text{GEN}}}_i+{\vartheta }_3{\mathit{\text{AGE}}}_i+{\vartheta }_4{\mathit{\text{TATT}}}_i+{\vartheta }_5{\mathit{\text{PLW}}}_i+{\vartheta }_6{\mathit{\text{PSS}}}_i+{\epsilon }_i$$(2) are as already explained in Equation (1)(1) $$\mathit{\text{AP}}={\alpha }_i+\gamma {\mathit{\text{PINV}}}_i+\vartheta X_i+{\epsilon }_i$$(1) . Equation (2)(2) $$\mathit{\text{AP}}={\alpha }_i+{\gamma }_1{\mathit{\text{PAVI}}}_i+{\gamma }_2{\mathit{\text{CALL}}}_i+{\gamma }_3{\mathit{\text{ENC}}}_i+{\vartheta }_1{\mathit{\text{GROUP}}}_i+{\vartheta }_2{\mathit{\text{GEN}}}_i+{\vartheta }_3{\mathit{\text{AGE}}}_i+{\vartheta }_4{\mathit{\text{TATT}}}_i+{\vartheta }_5{\mathit{\text{PLW}}}_i+{\vartheta }_6{\mathit{\text{PSS}}}_i+{\epsilon }_i$$(2) is estimated using the ordinary least squares technique because the dependent variable is measured as a continuous variable (see, Asteriou & Hall, 2011; Greene, 2012) as discussed under Section 3.3.

3.3. Variable description

The dependent variable in this paper is students’ academic performance. It is defined as the cumulated weighted average (CWA) obtained by each student and it is a continuous variable. This variable is obtained by asking students to state their respective CWA in the questionnaire. With regard to the independent variable of interest – parental involvement, this study looks at it from three perspectives – parents visiting their wards on university campus, calling them to check up on them regularly and encouraging them to perform better in academics. With respect to visit, the students are asked whether their parents visit them on campus within a semester and the response is either ‘yes’ or ‘no’. As a results, this variable is measured as a binary dummy and takes the value of 1 if a student respond ‘yes’ and 0 if the response is ‘no’. For, the calling variable, this study focuses on how regular parents call their wards to check up on them when they are on campus. The variable is obtained by asking the students how regular their parents call them; the response is either ‘regular’ or ‘not regular’. Parents who call their wards on daily basis, once a week, and fortnightly are classified as ‘regular’ whereas those who call their wards once a month, once two months, once a semester or not calling at all are classified as ‘not regular’. The variable is therefore measured as a binary dummy and takes the values of 1 and 0 when the response is ‘regular’ and ‘not regular’ respectively. With regard to encouragement, the students are asked whether their parents encourage them generally on their academic pursuit especially when results are released. The response is either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ and therefore the variable is measured as a binary dummy and takes the value of 1 for ‘yes’ response and 0 for ‘no’ response.

This study expects parental involvement to improve students’ academic performance and so a positive relationship is anticipated between parental visit, calling, encouragement and students’ academic performance. Past studies (such as Burns et al., 2019; Dahie et al., 2018; Hanif & Alwi, 2019; Lemessa et al., 2023; Mahuro & Hungi, 2016; Odira et al., 2021) have reported a positive relationship between parental involvement and academic performance. For instance, when parents visit their wards on university campus, they are able to know what their children do on campus to some extent. They could also inquire from the friends of their wards regarding their learning attitude, among others and this will inform them on how to advice their wards in order to perform better. Also, when parents call their wards regularly, they are able to know the challenges of their wards. They are then able to look for solutions to such challenges which hitherto will influence their academic performance negatively. Furthermore, when parents encourage their wards on their academic pursuit, it enhances their morale to even achieve more and this influences them to achieve better academic performance.

This study also controls for other variables such as belonging to at least a group (being religious, social, academic related etc.) on campus, gender, age, attending tutorials, person(s) the students live with, and having a personal learning schedule. These variables are incorporated in this study because they have the potential to influence academic performance to some extent as reported in some past studies (see, for example, Edwards et al., 2021; Loose & Vasquez-Echeverría, 2023; Mahuro & Hungi, 2016). For instance, attending tutorials helps students to understand issues which they did not understand during lectures and this has the likelihood of improving their academic performance. Again, having personal learning schedule also helps students to remain focused and also study aside attending tutorials and lectures; this is likely to enhance their academic performance. All other things being equal, students who live with their parents are likely to perform well relative to those who live alone or with other people. Biological parents are able to check up on their wards and also provide their needs, be it social or economic. Biological parents are more likely to ensure that their wards have sound mind so that they can study compared with students who live alone or live with non-family member who may even maltreat them or not bother about their social and economic needs; this turns to influence academic performance negatively. Also, age has the potential to influence academic performance. All other things being equal, relatively younger students are more likely to perform well academically compared with older students. Younger students may not have more responsibilities like taking care of family, and working aside schooling among others and this makes them focus on their academics, and in turn perform better, all other things being equal. Belonging to a group (academic, religious, and social groups) has the potential to improve academic performance. For example, the group can perform some academic related exercises which will in turn be of benefit to students in the group and hence likely to improve academic performance.

In terms of measurement, belonging to a group is measured as a binary dummy and takes the value of 1 when a student belongs to a group on campus and 0 if a student does not belong to any group. Age is measured as a continuous variable and it represents the years of the students. Tutorials attendance is measured as a binary dummy and takes the values of 1 and 0 if a student attends tutorials (in terms of regularity) and does not attend tutorials respectively. Parental status takes the value of 1 if a student lives with biological parents and 0 if otherwise (living with extended family member, non-family member, friends etc.). Personal study schedule is measures as a binary dummy where a value of 1 is assigned if a student has personal study schedule and 0 if a student does not have one. Gender is assigned the value of 1 for male students and 0 for female students; it is a binary dummy variable.

4. Results and discussion

In this section, the descriptive analysis and estimation of Equation (2)(2) $$\mathit{\text{AP}}={\alpha }_i+{\gamma }_1{\mathit{\text{PAVI}}}_i+{\gamma }_2{\mathit{\text{CALL}}}_i+{\gamma }_3{\mathit{\text{ENC}}}_i+{\vartheta }_1{\mathit{\text{GROUP}}}_i+{\vartheta }_2{\mathit{\text{GEN}}}_i+{\vartheta }_3{\mathit{\text{AGE}}}_i+{\vartheta }_4{\mathit{\text{TATT}}}_i+{\vartheta }_5{\mathit{\text{PLW}}}_i+{\vartheta }_6{\mathit{\text{PSS}}}_i+{\epsilon }_i$$(2) as well as the discussion of the results are presented.

4.1. Descriptive analysis

The descriptive statistics of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents as well as the summary statistics of the main variables of interest – academic performance, parental visits, calling to check up and encouraging wards – are reported in Table 1.

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents.

Variable	Freq	Percent	Variable	Freq	Percent
PAVI			GEN
Regular	216	35.24	Male	367	59.87
Not regular	397	64.76	Female	246	40.13
ENC			TATT
Yes	573	93.47	Attend	392	63.95
No	40	6.53	Do not attend	221	36.05
CALL			PLW
Regular	495	80.75	Biological parent	505	83.38
Not regular	116	19.25	Other	108	17.62
GROUP			PSS
Yes	459	74.88	Yes	449	73.25
No	154	25.12	No	164	26.75
	Mean	Std. Dev	Minimum	Maximum
CWA	66.8599	5.4280	34.7	94.6
AGE (in years)	21.4829	1.5951	17	30

Note: CWA = cumulative weighted average; PAVI = parental visit; ENC = encouragement; CALL = calling of wards; GROUP = belonging to a group on campus; GEN = gender; AGE = Age of respondents; TATT = tutorials attendance; PLW = person living with; PSS = personal study schedule.

Source: Authors’ estimation.

It is observed that 216 respondents representing 35.24 percent indicate that their parent visit them regularly whereas 397 representing 64.76 percent mention that the visit by their parent is not regular. About 573 and 40 respondents also indicate that their parent encourage and do not encourage them on their academic pursuit respectively. With regard to parents calling their wards to check up on them, the analysis shows that 495 respondents representing 80.75 percent mention that their parents call them regularly to check up on them whereas 116 respondents representing 19.25 percent indicate otherwise. Regarding the cumulative weighted average, it is revealed that the minimum and maximum values are 34.7 and 94.6 respectively, with a mean of 66.86. The analysis of the gender also shows that the number of males and females are 367 and 246 and these constitute 59.87 percent and 40.13 percent respectively. This is consistent with the numbers in terms of males and females in the university; the population of male students in the university is greater than that of females.

The results regarding the multicollinearity test are reported in Table 2. This analysis is performed to ensure that the results obtained are reliable and good for policy purposes.

Table 2. Multicollinearity and reliability test results.

Variables	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)
(1) CWA	1.000
(2) PAVI	0.038	1.000
(3) ENC	0.134	0.070	1.000
(4) CALL	0.028	−0.074	−0.411	1.000
(5) GROUP	0.111	0.002	0.091	−0.041	1.000
(6) GEN	0.005	−0.162	−0.082	0.059	−0.029	1.000
(7) AGE	−0.097	−0.088	−0.123	0.050	−0.041	0.217	1.000
(8) TATT	0.047	0.028	0.022	−0.003	0.082	−0.046	0.064	1.000
(9) PLW	0.059	0.018	0.155	−0.219	0.058	0.014	−0.111	−0.053	1.000
(10) PSS	0.026	0.099	0.004	0.014	0.049	−0.104	0.089	0.137	−0.028	1.000

Note: CWA = cumulative weighted average; PAVI = parental visit; ENC = encouragement; CALL = calling of wards; GROUP = belonging to a group on campus; GEN = gender; AGE = Age of respondents; TATT = tutorials attendance; PLW = person living with; PSS = personal study schedule.

Source: Authors’ estimation.

It is observed that none of the values is greater than 0.5 indicating that multicollinearity is not an issue in this paper, hence the regression results obtained are reliable.

4.2. Regression results

To examine the effect of parental involvement on students’ academic performance, Equation (2)(2) $$\mathit{\text{AP}}={\alpha }_i+{\gamma }_1{\mathit{\text{PAVI}}}_i+{\gamma }_2{\mathit{\text{CALL}}}_i+{\gamma }_3{\mathit{\text{ENC}}}_i+{\vartheta }_1{\mathit{\text{GROUP}}}_i+{\vartheta }_2{\mathit{\text{GEN}}}_i+{\vartheta }_3{\mathit{\text{AGE}}}_i+{\vartheta }_4{\mathit{\text{TATT}}}_i+{\vartheta }_5{\mathit{\text{PLW}}}_i+{\vartheta }_6{\mathit{\text{PSS}}}_i+{\epsilon }_i$$(2) is estimated and the results are reported in Table 3.

Table 3. The effect of parental involvement on academic performance.

Variable	Coefficient	Std. Err	t-Statistic	P-Value
PAVI (Not regular)
Regular	0.005	0.007	0.760	0.450
ENC (No)
Yes	0.061	0.016	3.810	0.000
CALL (Not regular)
Regular	0.046	0.016	2.920	0.004
GROUP (No)
Yes	0.018	0.008	2.250	0.025
GEN (Female)
Male	0.007	0.007	0.980	0.328
AGE (in years)	−0.098	0.048	−2.030	0.043
TATT (Does not attend)
Attend	0.007	0.007	1.050	0.293
PLW (Not biological parent)
Biological parents	0.011	0.009	1.190	0.234
PSS (No)
Yes	0.004	0.008	0.580	0.565
Constant	4.404	0.150	29.280	0.000
Observation	613
F-statistic	3.72
Prob > F	0.0000

Note: The dependent variable is CWA (cumulative weighted average); PAVI = parental visit; ENC = encouragement; CALL = calling of wards; GROUP = belonging to a group on campus; GEN = gender; AGE = Age of respondents; TATT = tutorials attendance; PLW = person living with; PSS = personal study schedule; the log form of CWA and AGE is used for the regression; items in parenthesis are the reference categories.

Source: Authors’ estimation.

The results in Table 3 reveal that there is a positive relationship between parental involvement variables (visit by parents, encouraging their wards and calling to check up) and students’ academic performance and the effect is significant except parental visit. Specifically, parents visiting their wards regularly, encouraging them and calling to check up improve cumulative weighted average by 0.005, 0.061 and 0.046 respectively. It is further revealed that there is a significant negative relationship between age and academic performance. The results specifically show that increasing age by 1 year reduces cumulative weighted average by 0.098. The results also show that belonging to a group (academic, religious, social) on campus is positively related to academic performance. Belonging to a group on campus increases cumulative weighted average by 0.018 and this is statistically significant. Furthermore, there is a positive relationship between gender (being male), attending tutorials, living with biological parents, having personal study schedule and students’ academic performance, albeit insignificant.

4.3. Discussion of regression results

Consistent with the study’s a priori expectation, the results show that parental involvement improves academic performance of students. This finding implies that parental visits, encouragement in academics and calling to check up on regular basis are crucial as far as better academic performance is concerned. For instance, as parents visit and call their children regularly, they become aware of the challenges that confront their children whiles on university campus. Solutions are then proffered which in turn improve their academic performance. Again, as parents encourage their wards on their academic pursuit, they get motivated and therefore put in their best and study harder to become the intellectual persons their parents want them to be in future. This finding is consistent with the assertion by past authors (such as Burns et al., 2019; Dahie et al., 2018; Hanif & Alwi, 2019; Lemessa et al., 2023; Mahuro & Hungi, 2016; Murray et al., 2014; Odira et al., 2021) that parental involvement is very crucial and pivotal in students’ academic performance. Furthermore, the finding is in line with the theory of parental involvement and the social capital theory by Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler (1995) and Bourdieu (1986), respectively, which emphasise the positive influence parental involvement has on students’ academic performance. In addition, this finding addresses the research question; parental involvement has positive influence on students’ academic performance.

In addition, the negative relationship between age and academic performance is plausible. As one grows, the learning or studying ability declines all other things being equal and this affect the academic performance negatively. A study by Mahuro and Hungi (2016) reported a similar finding. The positive relationship between belonging to a group (for example, academic, religious, social) and academic performance is plausible because, for instance, during group meetings academic discussions may ensue which the students may benefit from it; and this has the potential to improve their academic performance. This finding is in line with the assertion that belonging to a group promotes sense of belongingness which tends to improve academic performance (Edwards et al., 2021; Loose & Vasquez-Echeverría, 2023).

Furthermore, though insignificant, the positive coefficients for gender (being male), attending tutorials, living with biological parents, having personal study schedule indicate that students who live with their biological parent, attend tutorials, and have personal study schedule have better academic performance compared with counterparts who live with other people, do not attend tutorials and do not have personal study schedule. For instance, all other things being equal, biological parents will ensure that their children have access to whatever they may need as far as their academic pursuit is concerned and this will give the students the sound mind to study and hence do better in academics. In addition attending tutorials enable students to comprehend topics which they did not understand during lectures and this in turn helps them to perform better in their academics. Furthermore, having personal learning schedule also equips students to stay focused and do private studies aside attending tutorials and lectures which in turn enable them to have better academic performance.

5. Conclusion and recommendations

This paper has investigated whether parental involvement play any role in students’ academic performance. Using a sample of 613 respondents, the ordinary least squares technique is employed for the analysis. The consistency of the results is ensured by performing a multicollinearity test. The results show that there is positive relationship between parental involvement and academic performance. It is also revealed that age and academic performance have a negative relationship. Furthermore, there is a positive relationship between living with biological parents, having personal study schedule, attending tutorials and academic performance. Based on the results and the discussion, it is concluded that parental involvement in terms of visiting their wards on university campus, encouraging them on their academic pursuit and calling regularly to check up on them plays a crucial role in academic performance of students.

Based on the findings and discussion, the following recommendations are provided. First, it is suggested that there is a need for parents to get involved in their wards’ academic work. Specifically, parents should visit and call their wards on university campus regularly to inquire how they are coping with academic work. In doing so, the students will open up and share their challenges and possible solutions could be given. In addition, there is a need for parents to encourage their wards regularly regarding their academic work. Encouraging the students boost their confidence and therefore put in more efforts to achieve better academic performance. Students will be able to achieve good academic performance when parents see the need to get involved in the academic affairs of the students and contribute their quota accordingly.

This paper, however, is not without a limitation, as is the case with other studies. This paper focuses on students from one university in Ghana (Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology [KNUST]), so generalising the results to all tertiary students must be done with caution. As a result, this paper suggests that – as a direction for future research – future studies could focus on other universities in Ghana, and the results could be compared. Again, this paper measures phone call as a categorical variable rather than using number of calls (continuous variable). Therefore, future studies could consider using number of calls and the results could be compared. In addition, other measures of variables like encouragement (such as a good bit of encouragement or a little encouragement) could be considered in future studies as this present paper measures encouragement using binary dummy (Yes/No).

Authors’ contributions

All authors, Paul Kwasi Kumah, Samuel Tawiah Baidoo and Hadrat Yusif contributed at every stage of the manuscript including, conception of idea, data acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data, drafting of the paper, reviewing, final approval of the version to be published and agreed to be accountable to for all aspects of the paper in relation to accuracy and integrity.

Ethical consideration

Before the commencement of this study, obtaining informed consent from all participants was paramount. The researchers clearly explained the purpose, procedures, potential risks and benefits of the study to participants before they agree to participate. This informed consent ensured that participants fully understand their involvement in the research and have the autonomy to decide whether or not to participate without coercion.

To ensure confidentiality, the respondents were assured that their identity or any information such as age, academic result and any other personal information that is likely to reveal their identity will not be captured in the analysis. As such, in the data analysis, no information on the respondents which had the potential of revealing their identity was reported in the study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The data for this analysis is available on request from the corresponding author.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Paul Kwasi Kumah

Paul Kwasi Kumah is a lecturer at the Department of Sociology and Social Work, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. His research interests include Sociology of education, Sociology of crime and Sociology of religion.

Samuel Tawiah Baidoo

Samuel Tawiah Baidoo is a lecturer at the Department of Economics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. His research interests include macroeconomics, international trade and finance, domestic savings mobilization, financial inclusion and literacy, and monetary economics.

Hadrat Yusif

Hadrat Yusif is a Professor at the Department of Economics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi-Ghana. He holds PhD in Economics from the National University of Malaysia and has been teaching since 1991. He is specialized in economics of education and monetary economics.

Appendix A.

Questionnaire

This questionnaire is to help us ‘examine the effect of parental involvement on academic performance of students on KNUST campus’.

Therefore, we would be grateful if you could answer the following questions to enable us undertake the research successfully. The information that will be provided is for academic purposes and also to help in addressing students’ academic performance challenges, on the KNUST campus and other universities, hence it will be treated with utmost confidentiality.

Demographic and socio-economic charateristics of respondents

1. College:……………………………………………………………………………………

2. Faculty:……………………………………………………………………………………

3. Department:……………………………………………………………………………….

4. Index Number:…………………………………………………………………………….

5. Your current CWA:……………………………………………………………………….

6. Age (years): ………………………………………………………………………………

   Age category: 18 – 24 []   25 – 39 []  40 – 54 []  55 – 60 []  Above 60 [].

7. Sex:   Male []  Female []

8. Religion: Christianity []  Islam []  Traditional []  Other: (Specify)………………

9. Nationality: Ghanaian []  Non-Ghanaian []

10. Employment Status: Employed []  Unemployed []

    If Employed: Public sector []  Private sector []  Self-Employed [].

11. Marital Status: Single []   Married []  Divorced []  Other (specify)…………………

12. Number of Children: None []   1 -2 []   3 -4 []   5 or more []

13. Household size (siblings, parents, wife, husband, children, other dependants):

    1 -2 []     3 -4 []      5 or more [].

14. Do you belong to any group (social, church etc.) on campus? Yes []  No []

    If YES, how many? One []  Two []  Three []  Four []  More than four [].

15. How often do you attend lectures?   Regular []  Non-regular []

16. Do you attend tutorials?   Yes []  No []

17. Do you have personal study schedule (Time Table)?    Yes []  No []

Parental related information

• 18. Parental parent: Single parent []  [] Both parents

• 19. Whom are you living with currently: Biological Parents [] Non-biological parent []

• 20. Do your parents/guardian visit you?  Yes []  No []

  If YES how often? Once a week [] Fortnightly []  Once every month [].

  Once every two months []  Once every three months []  Once a semester [].

  If YES how will rate the visit in terms of regularity?  Regularly []  Not regular [].

• 21. Do your parents/guardian check your semester/examination results?   Yes []  No []

  If YES, do your parents/guardian encourage you after seeing the results?   Yes []  ou [].

• 22. Do your parents/guardian call to check up on you?  Yes []  No []

  If YES, how often do they call you?  Everyday []  Once a week []  Once a month [].

  If YES how will you rate the calling in terms of regularity?  Regularly []  Not regular [].

• 23. Do your parents/guardian encourage you generally in relation to your academic and life pursuit?   Yes []  No []

  If YES, how often do they encourage you?  Regularly []  Not regular [].

Thank you very much