Cultural influence on using mobile instant messaging applications to develop and maintain friendships

Abstract

Mobile instant messaging (MIM) applications have gained popularity in recent years. Their useful and effective features help users communicate more effectively. Communication technology adoption requires an understanding of cultural factors. In this study, there are four cultural dimensions evaluated: collectivism (COL), masculinity (MAS), power distance (PWR), and uncertainty avoidance (UA). These four cultural dimensions of a country were studied in order to understand their relation to two constructs of friendship development (FD) and relationship management (RM). Furthermore, this study examines the relationship between those two constructs and people’s intentions to continue utilizing MIM. Three hundred and twenty-one respondents from Taiwan participated in an online survey. The PLS-SEM method was used to perform the data analysis. In the study, a significant correlation was found between collectivism and friendship development and relationship management. However, masculinity does not have a significant impact on friendship development. A high power distance does not negatively affect relationship management. A high power distance has a significant positive effect on relationship management. An increase in uncertainty avoidance does not negatively affect friendship development. However, an increase in uncertainty avoidance has a significant positive effect on friendship development. MIM apps for friendship development and relationship maintenance are impacted by four cultural dimensions. These findings provide theoretical and practical implications for insight into these factors.

Keywords:

• MIM
• culture
• collectivism
• masculinity
• power distance
• uncertainty avoidance
• friendship development
• relationship management

1. Introduction

Mobile applications and smartphone use have grown rapidly over the past decade (Dhir et al., 2020; Wang & Barnes, 2009). In contrast to Short Message Service (SMS), MIM provides users with a variety of features that facilitate effective communication. Users can enjoy free real-time communication services through the MIM platform. In Asian countries, LINE messenger is one of the most popular MIM applications because it is easy to use and fun for the users (Riadi et al., 2018). As of the end of 2015, LINE had 215 million monthly active users in its four core markets: Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, and Indonesia (Quigley, 2016). Two-thirds of LINE’s total users come from these four key markets (Iqbal, 2022). In 2020, LINE generated $1.51 billion in revenue and had an estimated 224 million users worldwide (Iqbal, 2022). Today, LINE has evolved into a comprehensive mobile community platform that greatly influences how its users communicate with each other and build relationships.

LINE provides stickers that depict people’s moods and behaviors in a humorous manner. Many popular characters have been created by LINE, known as LINE Friends. Each of these figures was designed to have a unique personality (Lomas, Mar172013). Initially, LINE Friends effectively drove users to the platform and enhanced their loyalty to it. Additionally, LINE introduced other services including LINE Camera, LINE Card, and LINE Channel, which helped establish a sense of community. Users could play games and share creative content using LINE (Russell, 2012).

The use of LINE for managing stress and loneliness was found to be common among middle-aged and elderly adults in Taiwan (Chou & Liu, 2016). These particular demographics might experience problems related to their children growing up and leaving home, increasing their need to socialize and make new friends (Chou & Liu, 2016). According to Ractham et al. (2022), social media platforms can help older adults improve their overall well-being and life satisfaction. However, relationship building and interpersonal communication were not examined in their study. The impact of subcultures within a country on MIM use has also been scarcely studied.

It is essential to consider cultural factors when designing communication systems (Tinakhat et al., 2022). Cultural dimensions describe cultural differences that can be evaluated both relative to other cultures and among individuals within a culture (Hofstede, 1980). As Maznevski et al. (2002, p. 280) argue, “variations within cultures are inevitable and even necessary for societies to function effectively as a whole and to change and adapt over time.” When examining the influence of within-culture variation on mobile application use, Hofstede’s model has been used to explore the moderating effects of cultural dimensions (Chopdar & Sivakumar, 2019; Hoehle et al., 2015). For example, Hoehle et al. (2015) showed that cultural values moderate the impact of mobile social media application usability on continued usage intentions. Additional variables associated with MIM adoption and communication patterns include cultural dimensions (Liu et al., 2011; Urakami & Lim, 2021), attitudes towards privacy (Cao & Everard, 2007), perceived risk, and subjective norm (Rahmayanti et al., 2022).

Lastly, building on previous literatures, factors such as social influence, hedonic motivation, and perceived risk are considered to be the primary drivers of continuous intention to use mobile apps (e.g., Chopdar & Sivakumar, 2019; Lai & Shi, 2015; Yang et al., 2015). None of the studies reviewed for this research explored how people uses MIM apps such as LINE to create and maintain friendships. Our study aims to bridge the aforementioned research gap by investigating the use of MIM as a communication tool to develop friendships and maintain relationships and its cultural implications. In this study, we explore how positive relationship building experiences offered by MIM apps affect continuance intentions. Additionally, we examine how collectivism, masculinity, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance might affect the development and maintenance of relationships using MIM apps.

The following sections discuss the literature review and the formulation of hypotheses. After that, we will discuss the research method and how the survey instruments were constructed. To conclude the study, the data analysis and results, limitations, and recommendations are discussed.

2. Literature review

2.1. Cultural implications on user values and behaviors

Culture is a group-level phenomenon that greatly influences individual values and behaviors (Maznevski et al., 2002). In analyzing individuals’ interactions with others and with their environment, culture plays an important role (Sun, 2021). Culture has been conceptualized and operationalized at the national level in order to understand organizational behaviors like team performance (Congden et al., 2009) and technological adoption (Srinivasan et al., 2002). Some scholars have also focused on individual level of analysis, and defined culture as “the pattern of variations within a society, or, more specifically, as the pattern of deep-level values and assumptions associated with societal effectiveness, shared by an interacting group of people” (Maznevski et al., 2002, p. 276). A conceptualization such as this contributes to the understanding of cross-cultural management and cultural variance.

Several studies have examined the effects of culture on business practices (Mazanec et al., 2015), user interface design (Xie et al., 2009), and consumer behavior (McCort & Malhotra, 1993). Hofstede’s taxonomy of cultural dimensions has been introduced with its measurement index (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede et al., 2005). The framework was originally developed for human resources management, but has been widely used in other areas as well. Hofstede defined culture as the “collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another” (Hofstede, 1980, p. 13). Furthermore, he identified five universal values that may vary across countries: individualism, masculinity, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation (Hofstede, 1980, 1991). The five cultural dimensions of Hofstede’s original taxonomy remain crucial frameworks, despite the criticism that they are based on limited observations of IBM employees between 1968 and 1973 (McCoy et al., 2005). Previous research has used Hofstede’s taxonomy to study cultural differences in IM adoption and use. Accordingly, Hofstede’s model is used as a theoretical framework in this study.

2.2. Hofstede's theory of cultural dimensions and its implications for the use of MIM

People from diverse backgrounds behave differently because of their cultural differences, referred to as the software of the mind (Hofstede et al., 2005). In a similar culture, people form habitual ways of doing things over time and tend to agree on certain things. In contrast to inheritance, cultural formation is the result of learning (Hofstede, 1993). The manifestation of national culture can take many forms, including educational systems, training approaches, symbols, values, job security perceptions (Probst & Lawler, 2006) and the choice of IT applications (Agarwal & Prasad, 1998). Furthermore, culture affects how people process information (Triandis, 1994) and use mobile applications (Hoehle et al., 2015). Consequently, culture prescribes guiding principles to building and maintaining relationships through MIM applications.

The guiding principles fall into five categories or dimensions: collectivism, masculinity, power distance, long-term orientation, and uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede et al., 2005). Hoehle et al. (2015) demonstrated the influence of cultural values on the relationships between intention to use mobile apps, usability of mobile apps, application design, and utility of mobile apps.

Several dimensions have been demonstrated to influence MIM use. Users of the same national culture had different cultural values that affected their adoption of new technology (Srite & Karahanna, 2006). When users use MIM apps to build and maintain relationships, it is unclear whether their continued use correlates with Hofstede’s espoused cultural dimensions. This study does not consider long-term orientation because previous studies have indicated it is irrelevant to understanding technology adoption. As a result, the dimension was not included in the study. We will examine in more detail the relationship between continued use of MIM apps and the other four cultural dimensions in the following sections.

2.3. Understanding how technology adoption theory relates to continued MIM use

Propagation and mass adoption of an information system require continued use. A new technology needs to go through the diffusion process of adoption and diffusion to ensure its growing acceptance (E. M. Rogers, 1962). There are five types of adopters in the diffusion process: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards (E. Rogers, 1995). In the absence of continued adoption by its initial users, a new technology will have little chance of reaching critical mass. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the key factors contributing to the continued use of innovative technologies.

Communication technologies enable people to communicate more effectively and establish relationships with others. MIM apps has significantly improved communication both at work and at home (Cherry, 2002). MIM apps are novelty tools to increase the frequency and volume of communication between users. Their services include sending messages, making group calls, playing group games, and cheering people up with funny emoticons. Using MIM apps increases a user’s chances of making new friends as well as improving existing relationships. However, not all MIM apps are equipped with features to improve relationships. In the event that the primary purpose of the MIM apps is not met, users may feel disappointed and discontinue using it. Increasing MIM’s capabilities and user interface can increase the chances of making and developing relationships. Before investing in these efforts, MIM vendors need to know whether a user’s cultural background could affect their continued use of MIM. MIM apps vendors can fine-tune their tools by understanding the relationships in order to help their users maintain and make new friends.

The following section examines four cultural values that influence MIM adoption within a culture. After discussing the relationships between these constructs, the study examines how they may affect friendship development and relationship management.

3. Hypotheses development

3.1. The influence of collectivism on using MIM apps for relationship management

Individualism and collectivism are important cultural dimensions that influence communication. The concept of “individualism” was first introduced by Tocqueville in 1835 when he used the term to describe the characteristics of Americans (Jandt, 1998). Traditionally, individualism was a cultural value that prioritized individual needs over group needs (Hofstede & Bond, 1984). People who are from an individualistic culture tend to emphasize individual identity over group identity (Hofstede & Bond, 1984; Ting-Toomey & Chung, 2012). Collectivism, on the other hand, can be understood as “ a situation in which people belong to in groups or collectivities which are supposed to look after them in exchange for loyalty” (Hofstede & Bond, 1984, p. 419). Eastern cultures emphasize collectivism, while Western cultures emphasize individualism (Lu et al., 2002). Individualistic values are found in the United States, Canada, Australia, Great Britain, New Zealand, and Italy, while collectivist values are found in China, South Korea, and Japan (Hofstede, 1991). Americans, for instance, tend to value their unique roles and contributions while working independently. However, Chinese tend to fit in with their group and uphold its values, working together enthusiastically and effectively. While Westerners usually start their sentences with “I”, Easterners usually start with “We” (Vernon-Wortzel & Wortzel, 1997). Communication patterns and MIM use are influenced directly by culture differences between individualists and collectivists (Kayan et al., 2006, November).

Kayan et al. (2006) examined the differences in MIM use between Western individualistic, low-context cultures and Eastern collectivistic, high-context cultures. Hall (1989) described the low- versus high-low dimension as a reflection of the amount of contextual information needed in effective communication. Specifically, high context cultures rely heavily on situational information, such as nonverbal cues, while low context cultures focus more on verbal information in sense making (Hall, 1989). Asians use multiparty chat, audio-video chat, and emoticons more frequently than Americans. MIM tools are highly preferred by Asians to make new friends and maintain friendships due to their collective culture. Emoticons are the equivalent of nonverbal cues in online texts like Twitter and WhatsApp, which are prevalent in individualistic cultures. In high collectivist cultures, generic emoticons are not as popular as rich emoticons like stickers because they cannot convey the semantic, cultural, and social aspects (Park et al., 2013). Each emoticon can have a different meaning depending on the identity of the users and the delicate relationship between the sender and the recipient. In their daily communications, MIM users in high collectivist cultures primarily use emoticons and richer sociocultural tools. The high-contextual communication tools help them discover interesting people, topics, and hobbies and use the information to make new friends or maintain friendships. Thus, we propose:

H1: High collectivism has a positive relationship with using MIM apps to develop friendships.

H2: High collectivism has a positive relationship with using MIM apps to maintain friendships.

3.2. The influence of masculinity on using MIM apps for relationship management

The masculinity dimension measures assertiveness and achievement orientation versus quality of life. People in masculine cultures tend to be more focused on achievement and success, while those in feminine cultures tend to be more caring and focused on quality of life. As a result of their compassion and care, individuals who espouse feminine values tend to focus more on relationship-enhancing as their communication objective (Hofstede, 1984). Those who are high in masculinity are less invested in building relationships and collaborating (Rai et al., 2009; Srite & Karahanna, 2006).

Hofstede suggests feminine cultures are heavy Internet users (De Mooij, 2014) because of their perceived ease of use. Users of MIM primarily use it to make and maintain friendships rather than to maximize its user-friendly features (Lin & Ho, 2018). In contrast, LinkedIn adoption rates are higher in masculine cultures, such as the United States, Mexico, China, Thailand, and Japan (Sample & Karamanian, 2014), since LinkedIn allows users to showcase their professional accomplishments. Furthermore, Hoehle et al. (2015) found that individuals with higher levels of femininity were more likely to be motivated to use mobile social media applications because of their utility. Since individuals with high levels of femininity are more likely to communicate with others (Boneva et al., 2001), mobile social media applications positively influence their continued use (Hoehle et al., 2015).

A feminine user pays more attention to relationship building and collaboration than a masculine user (Srite & Karahanna, 2006). Users can communicate and collaborate more effectively via MIM apps (Piskorski, 2011). Therefore, people from femine cultures are more likely to use MIM apps to communicate with others, and to develop and maintain relationships. Users who are from high masculine cultures are less likely to develop and maintain relationships using MIM (Hoehle et al., 2015). Thus, we propose:

H3: High masculinity does not have a significant positive relationship with using MIM apps to develop friendships.

H4: High masculinity does not have a significant positive relationship with using MIM apps to maintain friendships.

3.3. The influence of power distance on using MIM adoption for relationship management

Power distance is a measure of how well less powerful members of a culture accept that power is distributed unequally (Hofstede, 1980, 1991). In cultures with a higher power distance, everyone has their rightful place in a social hierarchy, and there are strong links between parents and children, employers and employees, as well as governments and citizens. Those with a high power distance tend to respect hierarchy and status more, which makes them less likely to collaborate (Srite & Karahanna, 2006). Piskorski (2011) argued that mobile social media applications were designed non-hierarchically. A study conducted by Hoehle et al. (2015), for example, surveyed 1,844 smart phone users across four countries. According to their study, cultural values moderate the relationship between mobile social media application usability and continued usage. Also, Hoehle et al. (2015) found that people with low power distance values had a stronger relationship between application design and continued use of mobile social media applications. Users with low power distance may perceive MIM favorably because it facilitates communication with other users. Thus, we propose:

H5: High power distance does not have a positive relationship with using MIM apps to develop friendships.

H6: High power distance does not have a positive relationship with using MIM apps to maintain friendships.

3.4. The influence of uncertainty avoidance on using MIM adoption for relationship management

Consumer innovativeness has been attributed to Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance dimension through the adoption of smartphones, tablets, laptops, and internet use (De Mooij, 2014). Hofstede (1980, 1991) defines uncertainty avoidance as a tendency to avoid situations that might elicit uncertainty or ambiguity.

According to De Mooij (2014), consumers’ innovativeness influences their willingness to try new products and technologies. Such a tendency is strongly associated with uncertainty avoidance. A culture with weak uncertainty avoidance is more innovative than a culture with strong uncertainty avoidance. Therefore, we can assume that cultures with weaker uncertainty avoidance would adopt mobile technology faster than cultures with stronger uncertainty avoidance. People in cultures with high avoid uncertainty may have difficulty developing new friendships and maintaining existing friendships using MIM apps. Therefore, we propose that:

H7: High uncertainty avoidance does not have a positive relationship with using MIM apps to develop friendships.

H8: High uncertainty avoidance does not have a positive relationship with using MIM apps to maintain friendships.

3.5. The initial and continued intention of using MIM to develop and maintain friendships

App design and utility drive the continued use of mobile social media applications among individuals with high collectivistic, high feminine, and low power distance values. Interface structure predicted continued intention to use mobile social media applications for individuals with low uncertainty avoidance values. According to Tam et al. (2020), satisfaction, habit, performance expectancy, and effort expectancy drive continued use of mobile apps. A user’s performance expectancy is their belief that the system can improve their performance, whereas their effort expectancy is their belief that the system is not difficult to use (Chiu & Wang, 2008). In addition, Ding and Chai (2015) found that both positive and negative emotions may influence continuance intentions when using mobile applications. Instrumentational benefits influenced negative emotions, while inherent benefits influenced positive emotions. Positive experiences in relationship development and maintenance using MIM may contribute to continuance intentions. Thus we propose that:

H9: The increased intention of using MIM apps to develop friendships has a positive relationship with the increased continuance intention.

H10: The increased intention of using MIM apps to maintain friendships has a positive relationship with the increased continuance intention.

The literature review leads to the development of the research model (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Research model.

4. Research methodology

4.1. Data collection

A survey was used to examine the cultural implications of MIM and its use as a communication tool to help build and maintain relationships. By gathering the opinions of many people, surveys improve data representativeness (Gaille, 2020). Online survey participants can also remain anonymous. The collected data may therefore be more accurate than alternative methods such as interviews or experiments. Surveys, however, have some weaknesses. Responses may differ based on how respondents interpret the same question. There are also technical issues related to surveys, such as a lengthy and improper survey design, which may lead to fatigue among the subjects.

The survey instrument used in this study was tested for reliability and validity in order to improve data accuracy and avoid any technical issues. After the survey instrument was finalized, it received IRB approval. Our survey was posted on a online bulletin board at a public university in Taiwan because college students there heavily use LINE as their primary MIM app. MIM apps have been widely used in friendship-making contexts by these subjects. The results of the survey can be a better representation of the phenomenon investigated in this study if their responses are more accurate. Online bulletin boards are used by students and faculty teaching at the university. Participants in the study were awarded four prizes. The first prize was a $17 gift card to 7–11, a popular convenience store in Taiwan. There were three additional prizes as well: a $10 gift card, a $7 gift card, and a $3 gift card. After a deadline of one week, the prizes were drawn.

The study included 253 subjects, but only 231 responses were used for the final analysis after eliminating 22 invalid responses (Table 1). The response rate was 91.3%. Of the respondents, 33.8% were aged 31–39 years old, followed by 30.3% aged 23–30 years old, 26.8% aged 18–22 years old, and 9.1% aged 40 years and older (Table 1). Males represent 51.1% of total subjects, and females represent 48.9%. When asked how often they used LINE daily, 31.6% of all respondents used 2–4 times, followed by at least 10 times (28.6%), 5–6 times (19.5%), one time (11.7%), and 7–9 times (8.7%). When asked how much time they spend on LINE each time, 31.6% of all respondents spend 5–10 minutes, followed by less than 5 minutes (22.9%), more than 20 minutes (16.9%), 10–15 minutes (14.7%), and 15–20 minutes (13.9%).

Table 1. Demographical analysis

Categories	Variables	Frequency	Percentage
Age	18–22 years old	62	26.8
	23–30 years old	70	30.3
	31–39 years old	78	33.8
	40 years and older	21	9.1
Gender	Male	118	51.1
	Female	113	48.9
How many times do you use MIM: LINE daily?	One time	27	11.7
	2–4 times	73	31.6
	5–6 times	45	19.5
	7–9 times	20	8.7
	At least 10 times	66	28.6
How much time do you spend on MIM: LINE each time?	Less than 5 minutes	53	22.9
	5–10 minutes	73	31.6
	10–15 minutes	34	14.7
	15–20 minutes	32	13.9
	More than 20 minutes	39	16.9

5. Instrument design

A survey was used to study the influence of four cultural dimensions on relationship development and management, thereby affecting users’ intentions to continue using MIM. The questions used to measure each construct were modified from previous journal articles (see Table 2). A 7-point Likert scale was used in the survey, where 1 meant “strongly disagree” and 7 meant “strongly agree.”

Table 2. Reliability test results

Constructs	Questions	Sources
Collectivism (COL)	Being accepted as a member of a group is more important than having autonomy and independence (α = 0.815) Being accepted as a member of a group is more important than being independent (α = 0.870) Group success is more important than individual success (α = 0.859) Being loyal to a group is more important than individual gain (α = 0.911) Individual rewards are not as important as group welfare (α = 0.820) It is more important for a manager to encourage loyalty and a sense of duty in subordinates than it is to encourage individual initiative (α = 0.833)	Hofstede (2011)
Masculinity (MAS)	It is preferable to have a man in high-level position rather than a woman (α = 0.856) There are some jobs in which a man can always do better than a woman (α = 0.800) It is more important for men to have a professional career than it is for women to have a professional career (α = 0.807) Solving organizational problems requires the active forcible approach, which is typical of men (α = 0.903) Women do not value recognition and promotion in their work as much as men do (α = 0.782)	Hofstede (2011)
Power Distance (PWR)	Managers should make most decisions without consulting subordinates (α = 0.860) Managers should not ask subordinates for advice because they might appear less powerful (α = 0.868) Decision-making power should stay with top management in the organization and not be delegated to lower-level employees (α = 0.835) Employees should not question their manager’s decisions (α = 0.840) A manager should perform work that is difficult and important before delegate tasks which are repetitive and mundane to subordinates (α = 0.805) Higher-level managers should receive more benefits and privileges than lower-level managers and professional staff (α = 0.839) Managers should be careful not to ask the opinions of subordinates too frequently; otherwise, the manager might appear to be weak and incompetent (α = 0.833)	Hofstede (2011)
Uncertainty avoidance (UA)	Rules and regulations are important because they inform workers what the organization expects of them (α = 0.907) Order and structure are very important in a work environment (α = 0.935) It is important to have job requirements and instructions spelled out in detail so that people always know what they are expected to do (α = 0.896) It is better to have a bad situation that you know about than to have an uncertain situation which might be better (α = 0.840) Providing opportunities to be innovative is more important than requiring standardized work procedures (α = 0.709)	Hofstede (2011)
Friendship Development (FD)	LINE helps me meet new people (α = 0.875) LINE helps me develop friendships with new people (α = 0.886) LINE helps me obtain others’ personal information I am interested in (α = 0.868) LINE helps me know others well (α = 0.870) LINE helps me to maintain strong relationships with my friends (α = 0.795) LINE likely helps me maintain long-term relationships with my friends (α = 0.805)	Sheer (2011)
Relationship Management (RM)	I use LINE to keep in contact with family and friends (α = 0.936) I use LINE to interact with my family and friends easily (α = 0.946) I use LINE to improve my relationship with family and friends (α = 0.861)	Ku et al. (2013)
Continuance intention to adopt MIM (CON)	I plan to keep using this LINE in the future (α = 0.965) I intend to continue using this LINE in the future (α = 0.973) I expect my use of this LINE to continue in the future (α = 0.968)	Ku et al. (2013)

Hofstede’s (2011) survey instrument was used to measure four cultural dimensions: masculinity, collectivism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance. The friendship development construct was measured based on Sheer’s (2011) study. The relationship management construct was measured based on Ku et al.’s (2013) study. The continuance intention construct was measured based on Ku et al.’s (2013) study.

Cronbach’s alpha values were used to verify the reliability of the survey instrument. We retained only questions with a Cronbach’s alpha value greater than 0.7, indicating high reliability (Kerlinger, 1973). Cronbach’s alpha values for all survey questions are listed in Table 3. Uncertainty avoidance has the lowest alpha value of 0.709. According to these reliability test results, our survey instrument is highly reliable.

Table 3. Reliability test results

	Mean	Standard deviation	AVE	Composite Reliability	Cronbachs Alpha	Communality
COL	5.2424	1.1129	0.9391	0.9788	0.9676	0.9391
MAS	3.9584	1.2623	0.6903	0.9174	0.8871	0.6903
PWR	4.0043	1.2255	0.7061	0.9438	0.9306	0.7061
UA	4.8629	0.8743	0.7416	0.9343	0.9108	0.7416
FD	4.6703	1.1184	0.7235	0.9400	0.9234	0.7235
RM	5.0808	1.1017	0.8380	0.9394	0.9029	0.8380

To ensure high construct validity, we also tested our survey instrument’s convergent and discriminant validity. As shown in Table 4, the correlation matrix contains the square roots of the Average Variance Extracted values on the diagonal. Compared to their cross-correlations, the square roots are larger. The variance that each construct can explain is greater than the variance of measurement error. Therefore, the survey instrument has high discriminant validity. In addition, all items loaded on their associated constructs are greater than 0.5, indicating high validity (Wixom & Watson, 2001). In this study, the survey instrument had high discriminant and convergent validity, which indicates high construct validity. In order to conduct the full-scale study with confidence, we used the revised survey instrument.

Table 4. Construct validity tests: discriminant and convergent analysis

	COL	MAS	PWR	UA	FD	RM	CON
COL	0.8521
MAS	0.4230	0.8308
PWR	0.4237	0.6225	0.8403
UA	0.6084	0.2766	0.3083	0.8612
FD	0.4921	0.3636	0.3699	0.3684	0.8506
RM	0.4976	0.2515	0.3437	0.5231	0.6646	0.9154
CON	0.4394	0.2069	0.2623	0.5470	0.6051	0.8022	0.9691

6. Results

Smart PLS was used to calculate estimated path coefficients, path significance, and R² values. At different significance levels, six out of ten hypotheses were supported. The data in Table 5 support H1 and H2, which indicates that collectivism contributes significantly to friendship development (β = 0.330, t = 3.634) and relationship management (β = 0.242, t = 3.130). H3 and H4 are supported, showing that masculinity does not have a significant impact on FD (β = 0.119, t = 1.418) or RM (β = −0.048, t = 0.654). H5 indicates that power distance (PWR) does not negatively influence FD (β = 0.127, t = 1.537). H6 is rejected, showing that PWR has a significant positive influence on RM (β = 0.167, t = 2.337). H7 is supported, showing that uncertainty avoidance does not negatively impact FD (β = 0.096, t = 1.025). H8 is rejected, as uncertainty avoidance has a significant positive influence on RM (β = 0.338, t = 3.966).

Table 5. SEM test results

Hypothesized Paths	Path Coefficients (β)	T-statistics
H1: COL ➡ FD ***	0.330	3.634
H2: COL ➡ RM ***	0.242	3.130
H3: MAS ➡ FD	0.119	1.418
H4: MAS ➡ RM	−0.048	0.654
H5: PWR ➡ FD	0.127	1.537
H6: PWR ➡ RM **	0.167	2.337
H7: UA ➡ FD	0.096	1.025
H8: UA ➡ RM ***	0.338	3.966
H9: FD ➡ CON *	0.129	1.785
H10: RM ➡ CON ***	0.717	11.143

* p < 0.1; ** p < 0.05; *** p < 0.01

The four cultural dimensions can explain 28.8% and 34.2% of the variance in FD and RM, respectively. COL is the only dimension that significantly impacts users’ intentions to use MIM for FD. Furthermore, MA does not significantly influence users’ intentions to use MIM for RM. H9 was supported, indicating FD positively impacts the intention of users to continue using MIM (β = 0.129, t = 1.785). The results of H10 show that RM positively affects users’ intentions to use MIM (β = 0.717, t = 11.143). Using MIM apps successfully to make new friends or maintain relationships with old friends may encourage users to continue using them. Together, FD and RM can explain 65.3% of the variance in MIM users’ intentions to continue using it. Hypothesis test results are summarized in Table 6.

Table 6. Hypothesis test results

Hypothesis	Test Results
H1: High collectivism has a positive impact on using MIM apps to develop friendships.	Supported
H2: High collectivism has a positive impact on using MIM apps to maintain friendships.	Supported
H3: High masculinity has no positive impact on using MIM apps to develop friendships.	Supported
H4: High masculinity has no positive impact on using MIM apps to maintain friendships.	Supported
H5: High power distance has no positive impact on using MIM apps to develop friendships.	Supported
H6: High power distance has no positive impact on using MIM apps to maintain friendships.	Rejected
H7: High uncertainty avoidance has no positive impact on using MIM apps to develop friendships.	Supported
H8: High uncertainty avoidance has no positive impact on using MIM apps to maintain friendships.	Rejected
H9: The increased intention of using MIM apps to develop friendships can contribute to the increased continuance intention.	Supported
H10: The increased intention of using MIM apps to maintain friendships can contribute to the increased continuance intention.	Supported

7. Discussion

This study highlights the importance of treating friendship development and relationship maintenance as two distinct communication purposes because they are both influenced by four cultural dimensions differently. People in highly collectivist cultures benefit from MIM apps because they use them to communicate implicitly to make new friends. MIM apps also assist users in high collectivist cultures in improving their relationship with their friends. In contrast, these dual influences do not exist in any of the other three cultural dimensions.

In the current literature, masculine culture has a positive effect on social media adoption (Lin & Ho, 2018). The Americans, for instance, tend to adopt social media technologies and strategies faster and more widely than Canadians (Obar, 2014). As noted by Hofstede (1980, 2001), the United States, with a score of 62 on the scale of 100, has a stronger masculine culture than Canada, with a score of 52. Social media adoption is influenced more by masculine culture than by social-economic factors (Gong & Stump, 2016). However, we found no correlation between the use of MIM apps for relationship development or maintenance in our research.

Both power distance and uncertainty avoidance affect for relationship development and maintenance similarly. Users with high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance are interested in using MIM apps to maintain relationships, but are less likely to use them to develop friendships. The development or maintenance of relationships is primarily implicit in high context cultures because this communication method is a local social norm (Hooker, 2012). Therefore, the words themselves may be misleading because they do not capture the context and the complex relationships between the communicators. Communication needs in high context cultures are closely related to power distance and uncertainty avoidance. In Japan, for instance, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and context are high. A direct approach is not polite in Japan if you meet someone new by self-introduction without a referral. Our finding corroborates with the social norm that MIM apps are not practical to help users develop friendships. Nevertheless, once a person is accepted into the inner circle, the positive perception they developed about the person could be difficult to change. The use of MIM apps can assist people in cultures with a high level of power distance and high uncertainty avoidance to maintain their existing relationships as long as they have enough confidence and trust in the new relationship.

8. Theoretical implications

In this study, four cultural dimensions were analyzed to determine whether they influence MIM use for two general purposes: friendship development and relationship maintenance. This unique approach to studying MIM app adoption has numerous theoretical implications. In the current literature, users’ intentions are primarily examined in terms of their intent to adopt MIM apps without a specific purpose for using them. In this study, cultural dimensions were closely examined in relation to these two MIM usage purposes. Furthermore, this study shows that friendship development and relationship maintenance are influenced by cultural dimensions in different ways. People in high collectivist cultures are more likely to use MIM apps to make new friends. MIM apps for friendship development are less likely to be adopted by high-masculine, high uncertain avoidance, and high power distance users. In contrast, users with high uncertainty avoidance and high power distance are motivated to use MIM apps to maintain relationships.

In addition, this study investigates the moderating effects of cultural dimensions on mobile apps and social media adoption and the direct effects of national cultural dimensions on MIM use within a country. Lastly, this study extends the findings of Fitch (1998), that relationships are social networking processes that are inescapably enacted within cultural dimensions to the ubiquitous use of MIM.

9. Practical implications

This study provides MIM service providers with important insights into promoting the use of MIM apps to help their users establish new friendships and maintain relationships. It is important that MIM service providers promote features that can directly assist their users in achieving these two objectives. Due to inherent cultural dimensions and related MIM adoption challenges, this marketing strategy may not be adequate to attract users in all markets.

Results from this study highlight the importance of cultural aspects associated with MIM apps for improving friendships and maintaining relationships. New user penetration rates and engagement are key performance indicators for social media campaigns (Voorveld, 2019). In order to achieve these key performance indicators, marketing managers of MIM apps can use social media campaigns to help users create and retain as many new friends as possible. Social media marketers, for instance, have relied on influencers and customized brand content to engage their customers (De Oliveira Santini et al., 2020). MIM apps that can help users achieve these two results are more likely to have a good MIM service experience and build a loyal customer base.

Marketing managers should be aware, however, that social media marketing strategies are not universally effective when introducing MIM apps to people within the same country. A primary reason is the varying influence of cultural dimensions on the usefulness of MIM apps in developing friendships or maintaining relationships. Our findings show that users in high collectivist cultures are more likely to use MIM apps to expand their social networks by developing new friendships and maintaining existing relationships. For instance, WeChat is the most popular MIM app in China, a highly collectivist culture. The Red Packets feature of WeChat, which allows users to send money in virtual credits to friends in a group chat in the same menu as sending photos, is widely used by WeChat users.

Conversely, users in a high masculine culture are less likely to use MIM apps to manage their social networks. In the US, the MIM market is fragmented. Although Facebook’s mobile messaging app is the most popular MIM app in the US, the penetration rate is only 30% (Which, 2022). MIM apps are not a prevalent communication method in high masculinity cultures, according to this study.

Moreover, users who have a high level of uncertainty avoidance and a high level of power distance are more likely to use MIM apps for relationship management than for relationship development. The findings of this study stress the importance of offering culturally appropriate MIM solutions. A marketing manager for a MIM app could improve emoticons and Group Talk features that facilitate implicit communication. Users in these markets are more likely to use MIM apps to manage their social networks because they live in a collectivist culture. In contrast, marketing managers should focus on improving features like Whatsapp Voice and video Calls, and Whatsapp Document Sharing. Users can use these features to deliver clear, direct messages to their friends in high-masculinity cultures.

In addition, empowering users to manage relationships with MIM features is more likely to convince them that those features are useful. Users who are trying to establish new relationships are unlikely to benefit from those features. To be able to penetrate markets with high uncertainty and power distance, MIM apps providers should continuously design or upgrade those relationship management features. It has been shown that well-designed interfaces can reduce user effort in negating various features, reduce anxiety, and improve efficiency (Hoehle et al., 2015). Improved user interfaces could make MIM apps more appealing to those with a tendency to avoid uncertainty. Based on an analysis of users’ behavior and communication patterns using Twitter on a mobile device, Choi et al. (2016). demonstrated a higher level of group cohesiveness among Korean group members than American group members.The user-friendly interface of MIM apps can help convince users of their usefulness, as they can contribute directly to a high level of group cohesiveness among participants from cultures where uncertainty avoidance is prevalent.

The current MIM apps are not considered useful for developing relationships, but MIM providers can collaborate with other social media platforms that are effective in this area to compensate for their weaknesses. Social media platforms like Instagram, Facebook, and Whatsapp can be used to attract new users with high power distances and uncertainty aversions. Users can download MIM apps and manage established relationships after becoming new users on these social media platforms. Social media providers, MIM providers, and users can all benefit from such an approach because the initial adoption can encourage users to continue using social media.

10. Limitations and future research directions

This study has several limitations despite rigorous survey design and data analysis. Culture plays a significant role in the study. The purpose of this study was to provide cultural implications of using MIM apps to manage social networks within Taiwan. However, this study only surveyed LINE users, Taiwan’s most popular MIM app. Therefore, results may not be applicable to other cultural contexts. Future studies could replicate with users of LINE in other countries with distinct cultural differences. In the US, for example, the level of collectivism is low, masculinity is high, power distance is low, and uncertainty avoidance is low. It is also possible to replicate the study with Taiwan users utilizing MIM apps such as Whatsapp or Twitter. Future studies can therefore provide more robust and generalized results.

The survey questions were also primarily designed to measure user perception rather than actual usage. Business analytics methods can be used in future research to track users’ usage behaviors of MIM apps. An objective and non-intervened data collection method can provide richer insights based on actual usage behaviors. A limited sample size in the data may introduce bias as well. Increasing the sample size will minimize biases in future research.

11. Conclusion

The effectiveness of MIM apps has made them one of the most popular venues for establishing and maintaining relationships online. Users from some cultures find MIM apps helpful in establishing friendships, while users from other cultures use them to maintain relationships. By improving research and applications on MIM apps, scholars and practitioners can help improve social network designs and pursue life happiness for users around the world.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Charlie Chen

Charlie Chen is a Professor in the Department of Computer Information Systems and Supply Chain Management at Appalachian State University. His current research interests are business analytics, project management and supply chain management. His contact address is [email protected]

Jiangxue Ashley Han

Jiangxue Ashley Han (Ph.D., Pennsylvania State University) is an Assistant Professor of Public Relations in the Department of Communication at Appalachian State University. Her research investigates narrative effects in strategic communications. Her studies examine the social and psychological effects of narrative persuasion on users’ perceptions, emotions, attitudes, and actions.

Peter Ractham

Peter Ractham(Corresponding Author) is an Associate Professor in the Department of MIS and a Director of Center of Excellence in Operations and Information Management, Thammasat Business School. His research focuses on social media analytics and e-business. His contact address is [email protected]