Declining agriculture in Garhwal Himalaya: Major drivers and implications

Abstract

Subsistence agriculture—the cultivation of subsistence cereals including millets, oilseeds, and pulses is the major occupation and source of livelihood of people of the Garhwal region. Over time, the production and yield of subsistence agriculture have reduced drastically. This study examines the practices of subsistence agriculture, the major drivers of declining agriculture, and its implications on the livelihood of marginal farmers. Data were gathered from eight villages of four districts, using a household-level survey. A total of 376 households inhabit these villages. We have surveyed 207 households (55%), who were fully engaged in practicing subsistence agriculture, purposively. A structured questionnaire was constructed and the questions were asked from the heads of households on the area, production, and productivity of the principal crops during 2000–2020. Data were analyzed using statistical methods. This study depicted that traditional agriculture has been declining, as a 50% decrease in the area, production, and productivity of crops was noticed during the last 20 years. The decrease was noted mainly due to climate change, extreme geo-hydrological disasters, crops damaged by wildlife, increasing population, decreasing landholdings, low soil fertility, low output from arable land, mono-cropping, and a lack of use of modern technology. The exodus out-migration, land abandonment, and livelihood insecurity were noticed as the implications of declining subsistence agriculture.

Keywords:

• Subsistence agriculture
• livelihood
• productivity
• out-migration
• Garhwal Himalaya

1. Introduction

India is an agricultural-dominated country. Half of its population is fully dependent on practicing agriculture. In the Uttarakhand Himalaya, agriculture is the main occupation and the major source of livelihood (Wani, 2011). However, Uttarakhand’s share in the country’s GDP is only 17.8%, which is further declining (Economic Survey, 2019). Agriculture is characterised by fragility, marginality, inaccessibility, and poor infrastructural facilities. In the meantime, food grains obtain 76% of the total gross cropped area (Pratap, 2011). However, traditional farming is self-sufficient without any commercial use (Pandey et al., 2016). The production of subsistence cereals is low (Khanal, 2018). The landholdings are small and the terrain is rough and rugged (Pathania, 2010). Further, shrinking agricultural land and inadequate irrigation facilities are the other reasons of low production of crops (Pratap, 2011). Dependency on monsoon rain, lacking technological advancement, poor planning, and frequent disasters highly impact agricultural patterns (Fatima & Hussain, 2012). Soil is another driver of low crop productivity. Although the soil is fertile yet the arable land is steep and fragile, leading to high soil erosion (Mahapatra et al., 2018; Mandal & Sharda, 2011). The majority of farmers have medium to low socio-economic status (Roy et al., 2013).

Climate change has become one of the major hurdles for decreasing crop production and productivity in the Himalayan region. Increasing temperature, decreasing rainfall, and extreme weather conditions have been observed in the Himalaya (Swiderska, 2022). Future consequences of climate change can be seen in reduced water availability for irrigation, instability of crop yields, failure of rainfed farming systems, and occurrences of extreme events (Negi et al., 2012; Ramesh et al., 2017). Climate change triggered incidences such as flash floods, landslides, forest fires, and warming manifested increased arable land abandonment (Tiwari & Joshi, 2015). A decrease in snowfall has also led to a rise in temperature in the Uttarakhand Himalaya (Bolch et al., 2019). This has led to food insecurity as reported by Rasul et al. (2019) that approximately 50% of the population is suffering from malnutrition and food insecurity in the Himalayan region. In the meantime, about 38% of farming families are facing transitory food insecurity (IMI, 2019).

In the Garhwal Himalaya, subsistence agriculture is practiced on the narrow patches of terraced fields, using traditional methods (Micevska et al., 2008; Sati, 2019). About 70% population of the Garhwal Himalaya relies on practicing subsistence agriculture (Alam & Verma, 2007; GoU, 2014), out of which, 90% are marginal farmers (T. Partap, 1999). However, it contributes only 11% of Garhwal’s Gross State Domestic Products (GSDPs; Rahut et al., 2010). Subsistence agriculture, a primary activity, is a major source of livelihood for marginal farmers. Agricultural fields are plowed by oxen and the farmers use organic manure to increase the productivity of crops (Meena & Sharma, 2015). The arable land is only 18.5% and a large part of it is rain-fed. In the past, when the population was less, the output from subsistence agriculture was substantial to feed the existing population. Along with the growing population and limited access to arable land, the output of crops is not sufficient to feed them. The climate change factor poses threats to the declining production and productivity of crops and as a result, out-migration and land abandonment have become common. Many marginal farmers are facing food insecurity (Sharma & Sharma, 1993).

The major drivers that contribute to low output from the arable land include growing population, small and fragmented landholdings, rough and rugged terrain, rain-fed agriculture, inaccessibility, high soil erosion, low soil fertility, mono-cropping, and climate change. Inaccessibility, precipitous terrain, and fragile landscape are also major drivers that hinder the application of modern innovation in the field of agriculture (Maikhuri et al., 2009). About 30 crop races/cultivars have disappeared in the Garhwal Himalaya and many are on the verge of extinction due to climate change (Das, 2021). Further, climate change will have more implications for agriculture over the next 30 years (TERI, 2018). Sustainable agriculture is therefore inevitable to increase the production and productivity of crops (Pratap 1998; Pratap U, 1998).

The Garhwal Himalaya obtains a rich agro-biodiversity. It grows 17–30 varieties of crops in single cropland (Jodha & Shreshtha, 1993; Maikhuri et al., 2009; Rao & Saxena, 1994; Sati, 2014; Sen et al., 2002). Four agro-climatic zones—tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, and cold—comprise the Garhwal Himalaya (Figure 1). The tropical zone is situated <500 m, practiced mono-cropping—paddy, wheat, sugarcane, and mango. The sub-tropical zone is situated between 500 m and 1000 m altitude where paddy, wheat (spring), barley, oilseeds, and pulses grow with average crop diversity. Summers are hot and during winter, the climate remains feasible. The third agro-climatic zone is the temperate zone, which is situated between 1000 m and 2000 m in the middle latitudes. The crop diversity is quite high in this zone. The principal crops are paddy, wheat (summer), barley, millets (five races), oilseeds (four races), pulses (12 races), citrus fruits (four types), apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, and walnut. Climate is feasible during the summer whereas winters remain cold. The fourth zone consists of a cold climate, stretches >2000 m, and has substantial crop diversity. Wheat is harvested in the summer crop. Barley, millets, potato, rajma, apple, and walnut are the principal crops. For about four months of the winter season, this zone remains snow-covered.

Figure 1. Agro-climatic zones and crop diversity in the different altitudinal zones of the Garhwal Himalaya.

In the recent past, agriculture has declined in the Garhwal Himalaya (Bijalwan, 2012; Pratap & Pratap, 1997; Sekhar, 2003; Semwal et al., 2002). The area under various crops—cereals and fruits has decreased (Planning Commission, 2009). Further, the production and productivity of crops have also decreased, resulting in food insecurity. Besides the already given drivers of declining agriculture, climate change and variability were observed as the major drivers in the Garhwal Himalaya. Several studies have been conducted on different aspects of agriculture in the Himalayan region in general and the Garhwal region in particular—ICAR (2002), Sati and Rawat (1993), and Sati (1993), 2005, 2017, Sati & Wei (2018)); Bandooni (2017); Mehta (1990); Chand (1996); Saxena and Rao (1994); Tiwari (2008); Tiwari and Joshi (2011, 2012); Mishra et al. (2021); and Ramakrishnan et al. (1993). The major research questions raised in the study were: what are the driving forces affecting agricultural practices? And what will be the policy measures to cope with these drivers for sustainable agricultural practices? Based on these research questions, the objectives of the study were formulated as: (1) to examine the practices of subsistence agriculture in the Garhwal Himalaya, (2) to analyze the production and productivity of the principal crops, (3) to illustrate the driving forces of declining agriculture and its consequences, and finally (4) to suggest policy measures for sustainable agriculture development. The scope of the study is limited to the Garhwal Himalaya in general and eight case study villages of four districts—Tehri, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, and Rudraprayag of the Garhwal in Particular.

2. Study area

The Garhwal Himalaya is located in the western part of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Tibet in the north, Kumaon Himalaya in the east, Uttar Pradesh in the South, and Himachal Pradesh in the West delimit its international and national boundary, respectively. It stretches between 29° 31ʹ9” N—31° 26ʹ5” N and 77° 33ʹ5” E—80° 6ʹ0” E and has an area of about 29,089 km². About 92.6% of its geographical area is the mountainous mainland. The altitude varies from 200 m to above 7,000 m and similarly, agro-climate varies from tropical to sub-tropical, temperate, cold, and frigid cold with a rich agro-diversity. The snow-capped mountain peaks—Nanda Devi, Kamet, Trishul, Chaukhamba, and the Greater Himalaya regulate the climate and precipitation patterns of the downstream areas. Slope aspects, altitudes, precipitation, and winds (windward and leeward directions) also influence the agro-climate of the region. Suitable and varied agro-climate supports cultivating varieties of crop races/cultivars—cereals, fruits, and vegetables. However, agriculture is rain-fed. The Ganga River and its numerous glacier-fed perennial tributaries originate and flow from the Garhwal Himalaya, providing ample water supply to irrigate the arable land. In the meantime, the fragile landscape and undulating terrain hinder the irrigation system. The Garhwal Himalaya has seven districts—Haridwar, Dehradun, Uttarkashi, Tehri, Rudraprayag, Chamoli, and Pauri. Haridwar is the fully plain district, Dehradun and Pauri are partially mountainous, and others are fully mountainous. The eight study villages are located in four districts of the Garhwal Himalaya at different altitudes (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Map of Garhwal Himalaya showing the eight case study villages located in four districts of Garhwal Himalaya in different locations.

3. Methodology

3.1. Source of data

This study was conducted by gathering primary data. A case study of eight villages in four districts was carried out from August to November 2021 (four months). Three villages from the Tehri district, two villages from the Chamoli district, two villages from the Uttarkashi district, and a village from the Rudraprayag district were selected. These villages are located at different altitudes ranging from 750 m to 2,610 m (Table 1) with rich and diverse agro-ecology. A total of 376 households inhabit all villages. We surveyed only 207 households (55%) purposively, who were involved in practicing subsistence agriculture. A member from each household, who was educated and knowledgeable about farming, was interviewed, out of which, 20% of the interviewee were female. The average age of the interviewee was 50 years. A structured questionnaire was constructed and questions were asked from the interviewee about the area and production of all principal crops—cereals (including oilseeds and pulses), fruits, and irrigation facilities. The questionnaire was designed in such a way that the two times data from 2000 and 2020 were collected. It means that in 2000, the interviewees were 30 years old and since they have been practicing farming continuously, they could answer the farming situation of 2000 precisely. The perception of the heads of households was obtained on declining subsistence agriculture. The participatory observation method was used through staying in the villages for four months and for observing the farming practices. Data on altitude, latitude, and longitude were gathered using Geographical Positioning System (GPS) during the field visits. The average slope of the villages was obtained using a clinometer. A participatory approach (PA) during the field visits was used to observe the agricultural situation in these villages.

Table 1. Salient geographical and population features

Village	Altitude (m)	Latitude	Longitude	Slope (^o)	District	Total Households	Farming Households
Koti	750	30° 24’ 47”	78° 25’ 0”	20–40	Tehri	138	15
Kafalkhet	950	30° 17’ 16”	79° 18’ 20”	10–35	Chamoli	22	16
Nehra	1200	30° 12’ 23”	78° 58’ 0”	15–25	Rudraprayag	18	14
Kwanli	1250	30° 21’ 34”	78° 37’ 02”	20–30	Tehri	32	18
Nirakot	1320	30° 45’ 23”	78° 26’ 56”	15–20	Uttarkashi	22	22
Batkhem	1650	30° 21’ 11”	78° 28’ 10”	5–35	Tehri	54	32
Tugasi	2450	30° 29’ 1”	79° 38’ 39”	15–35	Chamoli	36	36
Purali	2610	31° 01’ 49”	78° 43’ 10”	15–30	Uttarkashi	54	54

Source: By authors

Figure 3 shows crops growing in four villages with rich agro-diversity. These villages are located at different altitudes and the crops grown in these villages are different.

Figure 3. (a) Irrigated paddy fields in Kwanli village (b) terraced rain-fed paddy fields in Nirakot village (c) potato grows in Tugasi village, and (d) apple grows in Purali village.

3.2. Data Analysis

Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used. The collected data were analyzed using statistical methods. Household-level data on the area and production of crops were averaged at the village level and crop-wise. The productivity (production/ha) of all crops was obtained. The change in the area and number of fruit plants, production, and productivity during the last 20 years (2000–2020) was analyzed and value was obtained. The impact of altitude on the crop area, production, and productivity was correlated and significant value was observed. A regression approach was also used to find out the t-value, f-value, and significance (ANOVA). The major drivers of change in agricultural practices and the impact of declining agriculture on rural livelihoods were elaborated. Finally, suggestions were given for improving crop production and productivity.

4. Results

This section presents the area, production, and productivity of the principal crops both cereals and fruits—crop-wise and village-wise in 2020. Changes in the area, production, and productivity of all crops were calculated and described. Descriptive statistics, correlation, regression, and ANOVA statistical tools were applied for analyzing data.

4.1. Crop-wise area, production, and productivity

There are a total of seven cereal crops and five fruit varieties grown in eight villages. Potato, apple, Malta (citrus fruit), walnut, and lemon are the major commercial crops (Table 2). The products of these crops are sold in the regional and national markets. All other crops are subsistence cereals, which are domestically used, and are even not adequate to meet the needs of the rural people. Potato grows in the middle and higher altitudes have substantial areas for its cultivation. Meanwhile, its productivity was comparatively low. The highest productivity was obtained from barley, which grows mainly in middle and higher altitudes. However, the area under barley was quite less. Paddy is the staple crop, upon which the livelihood of the rural people is dependent. It grows mainly in the river valleys and middle altitudes where irrigation facilities are adequate and therefore, the productivity of paddy was noticed high. A variety of pulses are grown with high productivity although the area under pulses is less. Rajma grows in high altitudes and has sufficient nutritional value. Oilseeds, mainly mustard in the valleys and middle altitudes, and linseed, soya bean, and bhangzira grow in the middle and high altitudes. However, the area, production, and productivity of oilseeds were quite low. Among the fruits, apple grows at >1800 m altitude, and peach and walnut grow in middle and higher altitudes. The number of apple plants and production was high in the highland, however, productivity was not substantial. Citrus grows between 800 m and 1600 m. Malta had the highest number of plants whereas productivity was the highest of lemon (58,000 kg/plant). Walnut is also a promising fruit plant, which has high productivity. Most of the crops are rain-fed as only 10% of the land is irrigated.

Table 2. Mean value of area, production, and productivity, 2020

Cereals (n = villages)	Botanical name	Area (ha)	Production (kg)	Productivity (kg/ha)
Paddy (6)	Oryza sativa L.	1.5	1708	1138.66
Wheat (7)	Triticum aestivum L	1.2	727	605.83
Barley (8)	Hordeum vulgare L.	0.9	1388	1542.22
Millets (7)	Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertner (Kodo); Echinochloa frumentacea Link (Jhangora)	1.1	856	778.18
Pulses (8)	Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper (Urd), Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Rajama), Lens culinaris Medikus (Masur), Glycine max (L.) Merrill (Soya bean).	1.6	1000	625
Oilseeds (8)	Sesamum indicum L. (Til), Brassica campestris L. (Mustard), Brassica nigra L. (Black mustard)	1.6	107	66.88
Potato (7)	Solanum tuberosum L.	13.4	7276	542.99
Fruits (n = villages)		Plants (number)	Productions (kg)	Productivity (kg/plant)
Apple (4)	Pyrus melus Miller, 1768	1223	30,900	25.27
Peach (6)	Prunus spp. (L.) Batsch 1801	810	14,500	17.9
Malta (6)	Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck	1100	30,200	27.45
Lemon (4)	Citrus spp. (L.) Osbeck	943	27,800	29.48
Walnut (5)	Juglans	500	13,000	26

Source: By authors

4.2. Village-wise area, production, productivity

The village-wise mean value of the area (ha), production (kg), and productivity (kg/ha) of cereals and fruits of eight villages were analyzed (Table 3). The highest area was possessed by Purali village, followed by Tugasi. Nirakot and Nehra ranked third and fourth, respectively. The other villages have less than 1 ha of arable land. The production was the highest in Tugasi village, followed by Purali. The lowest production was observed in Kafalkhet village. In terms of productivity, the highest was noted in Nirakot village, followed by Kwanli village. The lowest productivity was noticed in Kafalkhet village. The number of fruit trees was the highest in the Purali village, followed by Nirakot whereas, the lowest number of fruit trees was found in Kafalkhet village. The production of fruits was the highest in the Purali village, followed by Nirakot. The lowest production was noticed in the Kafalkhet village. In terms of productivity, it was the highest in the Nirakot village, followed by Nehra. The lowest productivity of fruits was observed in the Kafalkhet village. The study shows that the area and production of crops—cereals and fruits, were the highest in the highlands however, productivity was the highest in middle altitudes. The two villages—Nirakot and Kwanli have irrigated land, therefore, productivity was noticed high.

Table 3. Village-wise mean value of the area, production, and productivity, 2020

Village	Cereals			Fruits
	Area (ha)	Production (kg)	Productivity (kg/ha)	Plants (No.)	Production (kg)	Productivity (kg/plant)
Koti	0.64	308	481.25	458	11,800	11,342
Kafalkhet	1.13	177	156.63	262	5400	5138
Nehra	1.5	634	422.67	410	12,300	11,890
Kwanli	0.7	607	867.14	345	5800	5455
Nirakot	1,84	2374	1290	722	20,000	19,278
Batkhem	1.1	506	460	734	20,200	19,466
Tugasi (6)	9.93	8456	851.56	710	20,700	19,990
Purali (5)	18.3	3560	194.53	935	20,200	19,265

Source: By authors

4.3. Correlation: Altitude, area, production, and productivity

Correlation analyses were carried out to correlate the impact of altitude on the area, production, and productivity of cereals and fruit crops (Table 4). A correlation was established between altitude and the area and production of cereals and fruit crops and the significant value was higher in the high altitude in comparison to the middle and lower altitudes. The significant value of area and production was 0.002 and 0.027, respectively. However, the productivity of crops was higher in the middle altitudes in comparison to the higher altitudes. The landholdings are large in the high altitudes because of sufficient arable land.

Table 4. Correlation among altitude, area, production, productivity, and per household agricultural land

Variables		Altitude (m)	Area (ha)	Production (kg)	Productivity (kg/ha)	Land holdings
Altitude (m)	Pearson Correlation	1	0.912**	0.763*	−0.092	0.868**
	Sig. (2-tailed)		0.002	0.027	0.828	0.005
Area (acre)	Pearson Correlation	0.912**	1	0.683	−0.258	0.942**
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.002		0.062	0.538	0.000
Production (kg)	Pearson Correlation	0.763*	0.683	1	0.276	0.811*
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.027	0.062		0.507	0.015
Productivity (kg/acre)	Pearson Correlation	−0.092	−0.258	0.276	1	−0.187
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.828	0.538	0.507		0.658
Agricultural land/households	Pearson Correlation	0.868**	0.942**	0.811*	−0.187	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.005	0.000	0.015	0.658

**.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*.Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Source: By authors

A regression model was used to analyze the altitude, area, production, and productivity of crops (Table 5). The standard errors, standardized coefficients, t-values, and significance of all variables were observed and values were found significant.

Table 5. Regression of altitude, area, production, and productivity

Variables	Standard errors	SC	t-values	Sig.
Constant	498.607	-	2.538	0.085
Area	5.224	1.184	1.891	0.155
Production	2.509	0.537	1.034	0.377
Productivity	130.094	−0.065	−0.224	0.837
Landholdings	401.944	−0.695	−0.786	−.489
Adjusted R Square: 0.749 F-value and significance (ANOVA): 5.225 and 0.082^b Dependent variables: Altitude. SC = Standardized coefficients

Source: By authors

4.4. Crop-wise change in area, production, and productivity

Crop-wise change in the area, production, and productivity of cereals and fruit crops during the period 2000 − 2020 was analyzed (Table 6). It has been observed that the area, production, and productivity of cereals and fruit crops have decreased significantly. The overall decrease in cereals was 17.3% in area, 53.2% in production, and 42.4% in productivity. For all cereals except oilseeds, which area has increased by 162.7%, and potatoes, which production increased by 76.1%, the average decrease in all the variables was >50%. Further, a significant decrease in plant numbers, production, and productivity was also noticed. There was a significant increase only in the production of apples, however, all other fruits received more than a 50% decrease in all variables.

Table 6. Change (%) in area and production under different crops 2000–2020

Cereals	Area	Production	Productivity
Paddy	−61.4	−81.7	−52.3
Wheat	−58.5	−87.3	−69
Barley	−35.6	−35.6	No change
Millets	−32.5	−73.2	−59.8
Pulses	+6.3	−72.7	−75.2
Oilseeds	+162.7	−73.9	−90.6
Potato	−11.4	+76.1	100
Total	−17.3	−53.2	−42.4
Fruits	Plants in number	Production	Productivity
Apple	−62.1	+660.6	−33.1
Peach	−44.8	−86.9	−69.7
Malta	−6.7	−39.2	−62
Lemon	−29.4	−5.3	−14.9
Walnut	−30.1	−55.9	−35.1
Total	−44.4	+473.3	−52.8

Source: By authors

4.5. Village-wise changes in area, production, and productivity

Village-wise changes in the area, production, and productivity of cereals and fruit crops depict that except in Purali village, where the area of cereals increased, and in Tugasi village, where production and productivity of cereals have increased, in other villages, a significant decrease was noted in all variables. Overall, in all villages, the average area has decreased by 17.3%, production decreased by 53.2%, and productivity decreased by 42.4%. The villages located in valleys experienced a steep decline in all variables (Table 7). In terms of fruit cultivation, the number of fruit plants increased in the highland villages—Tugasi and Purali. In Koti village, which is located in the valley region, the number of plants, production, and productivity of citrus fruits increased. Other villages observed a large decrease in all variables. Overall, the number of fruit plants and production has increased whereas productivity has decreased during the last 20 years.

Table 7. Village-wise change (%) in area, production, and productivity of cereals and fruits

Village	Cereals			Fruits
	Area	Production	Productivity	Plants	Production	Productivity
Koti	−51.5	−81.3	−62	+51.5	+58.7	+4.7
Kafalkhet	−54.6	−93.7	−86.7	−6.7	−76.2	−74.5
Nehra	−40.9	−78.7	−63.8	−41.2	−85.9	−76
Kwanli	−3.2	−52.7	−50.7
Nirakot	+0.6	−25.9	−25.7	−6.9	−39.4	−34.9
Batkhem	−37.5	−90	−84	−51.4	−62.5	−22.9
Tugasi	−37.5	+50.6	+133	+19.8	−8	−23.2
Purali	+28.5	−64.5	−71.4	+1788	+984	−42.6
Total	−17.3	−53.2	−42.4	+508	+187	−52.8

Source: By authors

5. Drivers and implications of declining agriculture

The study shows that agriculture is declining in the Garhwal Himalaya. The authors observed several drivers of declining agriculture during the field survey. The population is mounting and as a result, landholdings are turning more fragmented and small. There is limited scope for the expansion of agricultural land. Owing to the precipitous slopes of arable land, the rate of soil erosion is high and consequently, soil fertility is low. In the river valleys and lower-middle altitudes, farmers are practicing mono-cropping instead of multi-crops (Figure 4). Coping with crop failure situations is difficult under mono-cropping. Agriculture is rain-fed, dependent on the monsoon. The erratic trends of monsoons pose uncertainty and high variability in rainfall. Modern innovation in agriculture is ineffective because the arable landscape is fragile, precipitous, rough, and rugged. The crop fields are plowed by oxen, organic manure is used as fertilizer, and the tools used in agriculture are traditional, causing low production and productivity. The Garhwal region has been facing problems from wildlife, they are damaging existing crops and killing people in rural areas. Monkeys, langurs, wild pigs, and wild bears are the wild animals damaging croplands. Human-animal conflict is also a major reason. The wildlife number has been increasing day by day, mainly after the implementation of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980. Climate change and forest fires are also affecting agriculture in the Himalaya. The river valleys and middle altitudes are warming. The crops grown in these areas are not giving satisfactory output. The marginal farmers have stopped growing several crops. Citrus fruits have completely disappeared from the river valleys and middle slopes and similarly, apples are not grown in their original areas due to vegetation shift. Several species have moved upwards such as the pine trees, which have invaded mixed-oak forests and from many locations, mixed-oak forests have disappeared. The frequency and intensity of geo-hydrological disasters are increasing. There are several instances when the rural settlements and croplands were washed away due to disasters. A State Government Report, 2021 indicates that during the last five years about 83 villages are washed away due to geo-hydrological disasters.

Figure 4. Major drivers and implications of declining agriculture in the Garhwal Himalaya.

The implications of declining agriculture are enormous. The output from the agricultural fields was noted low. Out-migration from the Garhwal region is very high. From 2011 to 2017, about 18% of people out-migrated. Many villages have turned uninhabited and are called ghost villages, mainly after the Kedarnath tragedy of 2013 (Sati, 2021). The agriculture fields have been abandoned (Kumar & Sati, 2022) and natural springs are dried. Consequently, water scarcity prevails during the summer in many villages, mainly located in the middle latitudes. All these consequences led to food insecurity.

6. People’s perception of declining agriculture

People perceived that the major driver of declining agriculture was crops damaged by wildlife. Climate change is another factor responsible for declining agriculture. People perceived that geo-hydrological disasters, lagging innovation, rain-fed agriculture, low fertility, mono-cropping, small and fragmented landholdings, and increasing population are causing declining agriculture (Table 8). Low output from agricultural fields, exodus out-migration, land abandonment, drying natural springs, and food insecurity are the major implications as per the people’s perception.

Table 8. People’s perception of declining agriculture (n = 207 households)

S. No.	Drivers of declining agriculture	Perception (%)
1.	Increasing population	40%
2.	Small and fragmented landholdings	52%
3.	Traditional mode of farming	65%
3.	Low soil fertility	64%
4.	Mono cropping	55%
5.	Rain-fed agriculture	62%
6.	Lagging innovation	68%
7.	Crop damaged by wildlife	100%
8.	Climate change	96%
9.	Geo-hydrological disasters	85%

Source: By authors

7. Discussion

The Garhwal Himalaya is facing a significant decline in agricultural practices. Our study reveals that the number of households has increased in the past 20 years, resulting in small and fragmented landholdings. Data on landholdings (ha/household) show that they are bigger (>1.8 ha) in the highland villages such as Purali and Tugasi whereas, in the middle altitudes and valleys, their size is small. Three villages—Nehra, Kafalkhet, and Nirakot have > 0.4 ha landholdings whereas, the other three villages—Koti, Kwanli, and Batkhem have < 0.4 ha landholdings. Landholdings are also associated with out-migration. In the highlands, the landholdings are consolidated, even after family divisions, landholdings are not fragmented. In contrast, in the valley regions, the rate of out-migration is high and the out-migrating HHs keep their cropland abandoned. Further, the arable lands have been used for the construction of economic avenues in the valley regions and this is also a cause for declining agriculture.

Out-migration and land abandonment are the major consequences of declining agricultural practices in the Garhwal Himalaya. A study on correlation was established between migration and land abandonment and it was noticed that in the villages where out-migration was high, land abandonment was consequently high except for two villages—Tugasi and Kwanli. The significant value was 0.927 and the Pearson correlation value was 0.043. Tugasi village had observed a huge decline in arable land because of 37.5% land abandonment. Out-migration from Kwanli villages was above 40% during the reporting period whereas land abandonment was nominal. The study shows that both out-migration and land abandonment is high in the villages of valleys and middle altitudes while it is nominal in the highland areas. The highest out-migration was from Koti village, which was 89%, followed by Kwanli (44%) and Batkhem (41%) villages. In terms of land abandonment, it was the highest in Kafalkhet (54.6%), followed by Koti (51.5%) and Nehra. High land abandonment was also noticed in Batkhem and Tugasi villages.

This study reveals that the area, production, and productivity in eight case study villages have decreased by more than 50% during the last 20 years. Further, the rate of declining agriculture varied from the valleys to the highlands. We noticed that in the villages, which are located in the river valleys, agricultural practices have declined significantly whereas, the middle altitudes and the highland villages’ maintained agricultural practices. The area under crops was high in the highlands and to a certain extent in the middle altitudes. However, it was significantly less in the valleys. In terms of production and productivity of crops, it was the highest in the middle altitudes such as in the two villages—Kwanli and Nirakot. In the highlands, crops grow only during the sixth month of summer whereas the winters are snow-clad. Here, the climate is harsh, as a result, the production and productivity of crops were low. We noticed that wherever the irrigation facilities are adequate, crop productivity is comparatively higher. This was also the reason for the high productivity of paddy, which grows in the irrigated land of the study villages. Several factors were noticed for declining agricultural practices in the Garhwal Himalaya among which are climate variability and change, growing population, decreasing landholdings, crops damaged by wildlife, inadequate irrigation facilities, high soil erosion, low soil fertility, and finally, low output from the arable land was prominent. Out-migration, land abandonment, and livelihood insecurity were the consequences of declining agriculture.

The Garhwal Himalaya has observed tremendous climate change as the warming of the valleys and middle altitudes. In the highlands, its impact was not seen much effective as is evident from the fact that in 1987 when the Indian subcontinent faced severe drought, the highland areas of the Garhwal Himalaya enjoyed enough production and productivity of crops because of the presence of high humidity in the atmosphere (Nitya & Kumar, 1989; Sati & Kumar, 2004). However, in the recent past, the humidity has decreased in the highland, and in the future, if the trend remains the same, it will have adverse implications.

Data collected from secondary sources also show declining trends in crop area, production, and productivity from the mountain niche of the Garhwal Himalaya. For example, the area, production, and yields of millet and fruits have decreased in past decades. Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India 2020 reported that between 2010 and 2020 approximately—a 3.25% decrease in the net shown area was noticed. During the period, a decrease in crop production and productivity was also noticed. The productivity of several crops has decreased by 2%, according to government data.

8. Conclusions

The case study of eight villages of the Garhwal Himalaya reveals that agriculture—the area (17.3%), production (53.2%), and productivity (42.4%) has declined from all the altitudinal gradients of the Garhwal Himalaya. Further, the study shows that increasing population (40%), small and fragmented landholdings (52%), traditional mode of agriculture (65%), low fertility (64%), mono-cropping (55%), rain-fed agriculture (62%), lagging innovation (68%), crop damage by wildlife (100%), climate change (96%), and geo-hydrological hazards (85%) are the major drivers of declining agriculture. The low output from agricultural fields, exodus out-migration, land abandonment, drying natural springs, and food insecurity are the major implications. Our observation shows that due to climate change, the agro-ecological zones are shifted to higher altitudes. Many crop races/cultivars are disappeared or shifted to higher locations. We have also observed that agriculture has declined more in the river valleys than in the high altitudes. The agro-climatic zones can be re-demarcated keeping climate change in mind. Further, crop suitability analysis can be done to grow crops as per their suitability along the altitudinal gradients. In the river valleys, where irrigation facilities are ample, the land under rainfed can be converted into irrigated land. Apple fruits can be grown above 2,000 m whereas citrus fruits can be grown in areas above 1,400 m. Potato is a potential crop that can be grown at higher altitudes. More land can be devoted to the cultivation of wheat and rice in the valley regions. The government’s role is vital in this regard. During crop failure, marginal farmers can be given financial assistance. A holistic approach can be framed and implemented for the agricultural development of the Garhwal Himalaya. This study was conducted based on the case study of only eight villages of four districts. Therefore, it is suggested that future research should be conducted at a larger scale and for that the study of the entire Uttarakhand state is inevitable.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Vishwambhar Prasad Sati

Vishwambhar Prasad Sati (b. 1966), D.Litt. and Ph.D., a Senior Professor of Geography and Resource Management, is currently working at the Mizoram University (A Central University), Aizawl, India. With a teaching career of about three decades, he has served in several higher education institutions within and outside India. In the same field, he has deeply been involved in research, and has worked as a Visiting Professor and Visiting Scholar in the world’s various renowned research and academic institutions. He has an impactful expertise in the fields of Natural Resource Management, Environment-Development Interface, Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, Disaster-Related issues, and Culture of the Himalayan region. More than a dozen of national individual projects and projects with international collaboration have been conducted by him. With more than 160 research papers and articles, and about three dozen books published, his academic contribution is well-documented at national and international levels.