Exploring the utilisation and management of Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst (Marula tree) in the Beitbridge district of southern Zimbabwe

Abstract

The marula tree can play a vital role to enhance the livelihoods within marginalised communities and aid forest management efforts. This research aimed to explore the utilisation and management of the marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) in ward 3 of Beitbridge district, Southern Zimbabwe. A representative sample of 300 randomly selected households from five villages of ward 3 were interviewed telephonically and through the WhatsApp social media platform using a semi-structured questionnaire. The study observed that 95% of the sampled households harvested and utilised marula fruits to produce several products including jam, marula wine, nuts for consumption, and soda. In addition, marula makes a significant contribution to family income at (35%) when in season compared to other livelihood options such as livestock rearing and cropping. An average of 443 kg of marula fruits were harvested per season per village and there were significant differences (p < 0.05) in quantities harvested across villages. Households involved in marula fruit trading increased by 27% in 20 years due t\o an improvement in the marula tree value chain in the district. Therefore, there is a distinct possibility for overutilisation of the marula tree products, which necessitates the need for the development of effective marula forest management plans.

Keywords:

• Marula Tree
• Non-Timber Forest Products
• Commercialisation
• Marginalised Communities

1. Introduction

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) contribute to livelihoods of between 3.5 and 5.8 billion people worldwide in the form of income, food and nutrition security, medicinal and other socio-economic ecosystem services (FAO 2022; Suleiman et al., 2017, CIFOR, 2011). Studies by Koziell and Saunders (2001) and Munyati and Sinthumule, (2014) found that the livelihoods of people in Southern Africa are dependent strongly on natural resources. The forest industry is one of the sectors contributing to the livelihoods of populations across communities by meeting the needs of rural households (Heubach et al., 2011; Pengelly et al., 2012). Globally, NTFPs are considered a safety net to protect communities against shocks and stressors related to agriculture and food security (Shackleton and Dash & Behera, 2013; Shackleton, 2004). A study in two villages in South Africa, by Paumgarten and Shackleton (2009) established that 70% of rural households in South Africa used NTFPs for survival in times of food shortages. An assessment by the Independent Evaluation Group (2021) revealed that the world’s poor population mostly resides in rural communities and is likely to be dependent on NTFPs. The results of a study by C. Shackleton et al. (2007) revealed that in most cases the share of household revenue from NTFPs surpasses the minimum wages of teachers in other Central and West African countries. The contribution of NTFPs to rural household incomes is very significant and if given attention, the sector can enhance the socio-economic well-being of forest-dependent communities (Agrawal et al. (2013).

The marula tree is an example of a tree that adapts well to semi-arid ecosystems and offers many benefits to local communities (Sinthumule et al. 2019). It is common in drought-prone areas (Sinthumule et al. 2019). Besides the provision of off-farm employment and revenue generation, the harvesting of the marula tree and other NTFP supports forest conservation as it incentivizes communities to judiciously use resources for future purposes (Zashimuddin, 2004), Cocksedge (2001). With the increased levels of marula fruit harvesting, there is a need for close management to allow regeneration and continual growth. Several studies have revealed that the reliance on harvesting NTFPs, from an environmental perspective, can result in deforestation and environmental degradation (Coetzer et al., 2010; Hosonuma et al., 2012).

Despite the centrality of the marula tree and other NTFPs to rural livelihoods in Zimbabwe, their management is usually laid back (Arnold& Perez,). According to R. Wynberg et al. (2012), most Southern African countries have no laws that regulate the use of marula trees. The available regulations are borrowed from the general environmental laws that are characterised by the complex and confusing mix of measures (Wynberg et al., 2012). The complexity of laws further complicates institutional arrangements around the management of NTFPs (Laird et al., 2011). The multiplicity of institutions that are mandated to manage NTFPs make their administration difficult (Arnold & Perez,). Murye and Pelser (2018) indicated that the survival of trees is dependent on human respect for the plant and the cosmological attachments that people have for certain plants. A key challenge to the growth and economic contribution of the marula tree in Southern Africa is the lack of data despite the market demand and increasing use of NTFPs (Attah, 2021). According to Attah (2021), the use of NTFPs has rarely been documented although their use before and during the COVID-19 pandemic has increased. The rationale behind this increase is hinged on the notion that most NTFPs including the marula tree can aid in the treatment of COVID-19 and other ailments (Attah, 2021, FAO, 2022). A study by Lyndon (2005) revealed that in the Caribbean, the lack of information on the NTFP sector has led to insufficient management controls and inefficient policies governing the sector.

Beitbridge district, ward 3 falls under agro-ecological region 5, where the annual average rainfall is <500 mm. Despite the low amounts of rainfall received, livestock production is a lucrative farming portfolio for the study area. We hypothesized that, despite the strategic role of the marula tree in sustaining rural livelihoods, in Beitbridge ward 3, it was peripheral to livelihoods since livestock production was an important and productive activity for all households. Owing to modernisation, most rural communities have abandoned the traditional livelihood systems that relied heavily on NTFP harvesting as part of their diet. Beitbridge district is well adapted to livestock production, making this livelihood portfolio widespread and profitable for communities. This study was conducted to better understand the relevance of NTFP harvesting for consumption as a livelihood option in a livestock-based rural economy. This work will help illuminate the role of NTFP from marula trees is in livelihoods for a livestock-based economy in a semi-arid region. The main objective of the study was to explore the utilisation and management of the marula tree using ward 3, Beitbridge district as a case study. The study aimed at answering the following questions:

1. Who is involved in marula harvesting and trade?

2. What type of marula products are traded?

3. How much household income is generated by the marula tree?

4. Is the marula tree commercialised or traded on?

5. Who is managing the marula tree?

6. Are there structures, institutions, or policies for the management of the marula tree?

2. Material and methods

2.1. Study area

The study was undertaken in ward 3 of Beitbridge district which comprises 5 villages, namely, Fuller, Makombe, Mandate, Madaula, and Tshaswingo (Figure 1). The ward has a total household population of 1350 (BRDC Annual Report, 20011). The ward covers a geographic area of 10 400 hectares. (BRDC Annual Report, 20011). The annual average rainfall for the ward is between 300 and 600 mm (Feresu, 2010; Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee Report ZIMVAC, 2020) and is subject to periodic seasonal droughts and severe dry spells during the rainy season (Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee Report ZIMVAC, 2020). The climatic conditions of the area are largely sub-tropical with one rain season between November and March. The ward`s annual temperature is between 25°C and 27.5°C (Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee Report ZIMVAC, 2020). Ward 3 is extremely vulnerable to climate variability and climate change, which is compounded by low adaptive capacity and the interaction of social, economic, and environmental factors with climate (Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee Report ZIMVAC, 2020). The vegetation physiognomic type is tree bush savanna comprised of species such as Colophospermum mopane, Vachellia spp, Sclerocarya birrea, and Adonsonia digitata amongst others (Matsa, 2019). We chose this particular area for this study based on its high densities of marula trees and a thriving local livestock industry so as to answer our hypothesis.

Figure 1. Map of Beitbridge district showing the location of ward 3.

2.2. Research design

The research used a case study survey design to fully describe the uses, management options, and commercialisation of the marula tree products. The survey design involved the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions (Glasow, 2005). A survey method is a cost-effective approach that enables representative results to be available on time with reasonable costs (Glasow, 2005). The survey design allowed the researchers to gather large quantities of data relatively quickly from all 5 villages. The survey design also allows the collection of data using mobile devices which is what this research employed (Glasow, 2005).

2.3. Data collection

For data collection, we used both secondary data in the form of a literature review for the manuscript and primary data as described in the next sections. The use of different methods resulted in data triangulation, which inadvertently validated our results.

2.3.1. Questionnaire survey

The study relied on primary data and employed a questionnaire survey as a data collection tool. According to Navarro-Rivera and Kosmin (2013), a questionnaire is an instrument, which is used to quantify the attitudes, opinions, behaviors, preferences, and intentions of a group of people for any specified objective. The data collected through questionnaires is standard, making it easy to analyse and inexpensive (Navarro-Rivera & Kosmin, 2013). The questionnaire was pre-tested to eliminate open-ended questions. We introduced the study and its objectives to the local and traditional leadership for permission to administer questionnaires and ensure informed consent. Data collection was conducted from May to July 2021. Since data was collected during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, questionnaires were administered telephonically and through the WhatsApp social media platform in all 5 villages of ward 3. The legal restrictions and safety measures adopted during the COVID-19 pandemic set boundaries to conduct face-to-face interviews. The researchers had to adapt to the new norm of conducting interviews virtually. Fortunately, Ward Councillor records revealed that at least one member of each household in the ward owned a cellular phone. According to Self (2021), the use of telephone interviews has become necessary owing to the legal restrictions and safety measures introduced during the COVID-19 pandemic. Carr and Allison (2001) stated that a telephone interview is a way of obtaining data, which allows interpersonal communication without face-to-face interviews.

2.3.1.1. Sampling procedure for the questionnaire survey

Multiple-stage sampling with probability proportional size stratified sampling was used for this study (Sedgwick, 2015; Suleiman et al., 2017). The study concentrated on ward 3, which had 1350 households and comprised 5 villages namely Fuller, Makombe, Mandate, Madaula, and Tshaswingo. The ward was selected because of a high potential for marula products commercialisation owing to the relatively high density of the tree. We used equation 1 to determine the sample size. The sample size for this quantitative household study was calculated using Rao software sample size calculation (Hightower & Scott, 2012). The sample size was determined for the whole ward and then for each of the 5 villages.

$n=\frac{\frac{z^2\times p\left(1-p\right)}{e^2}}{1+\left(\frac{z^2\times p\left(1-p\right)}{e^{2}N}\right)}$

Where:

Z is 95% a confidence interval

N is the Total number of households (1350)

P is a 50% measure of dispersion

This calculation resulted in a sample size (N) of 300 households. Based on the total sample of 300, the sample size for each of the five villages was calculated as a proportion of the population size of each village to ensure that each village was represented equitably (Table 1).

Table 1. Sample sizes per village in ward 3, Beitbridge district

Village Name	Number of Households	Sample size
Fula	270	60
Madaula	180	40
Mandate	225	50
Makombe	360	80
Tshaswingo	315	70
Total	1 350	300

Each household was considered a sampling unit, with one questionnaire restricted to a single person per household, if possible, the household head. This was done to avoid repeating a household and getting biased information. In cases where the household head was not available, the eldest member of the family was considered. The age of the respondent was taken into consideration, only people aged 18 years and above were interviewed. In summary, the questionnaire captured information on the demographic characteristics of the participants and household livelihood information. Household information helped in understanding the relationship between the composition of the household and marula tree utilisation. The questions on livelihood activities and incomes gave the researchers an insight into the contribution of the marula tree and other activities as sources of revenue. Questions on institutional arrangements for marula tree management brought out the perceptions of people on the management of NTFPs in general. The questionnaire also gave insight into the perceptions of the community on commercialisation of the marula tree products. Poor network resulted in half surveys that required follow-up on different days. To overcome this, the researchers interacted with the participants on days when there was better connectivity, for example, if participants were not working in the fields as they usually visit marketplaces or ward centers to buy food. The researchers also relied on the local extension officers.

2.3.2. Key informant interviews

Interviewing individuals from different backgrounds can enhance the credibility of the findings. At the same time interviewing key informants provided information in situations where the participants were less able to provide perspective about themselves. A total of 8 key informants (Table 2) were purposively selected using the researcher’s knowledge of those stakeholders who had in-depth knowledge of the topic and expertise regarding the information on NTFPs. The government service providers were interviewed to get insight into their role as managers of NTFPs. The traditional leaders were interviewed to get the traditional perception of the management of NTFPs in relation to their jurisdiction. From key informants, we also sought information related to institutional arrangements on NTFPs use and management, attitudes of people towards policies, and sustainability of the marula resource base if commercialisation was considered.

Table 2. Key informant interview participants

Key Informant	Focal person
Forestry Commission	District Officer
Environmental Management Agency (EMA),	District officer
Department of Agriculture, Technical and Extension Services	Extension officer ward 3
Beitbridge Rural District council	CAMPFIRE officer
Chief Matibe	Chief Matibe (Beitbridge East)
Bio Hub Trust	District Field Officer
Councilor	Ward 3 Councilor
Religious leaders	Apostolic sect Church Leader

2.4. Theoretical framework of the study

This study is being undertaken within the broader scope of sustainability science which is the study of the dynamic relationship between humans and the environment, particularly focusing on the vulnerability, robustness, resilience, and stability of the human-environment system (Spangenberg, 2011). In this research, we defined sustainability science as the science that provides the theoretical foundation and practical guidance for sustainable development influenced by human actions, policies, and regimes that maintain the integrity and stocks of natural processes. This study links sustainability science and the sustainable livelihoods approach (DFID, 2000) because the sustainable use of natural resources is critical for people`s livelihoods to continue existing. When a livelihood is sustainable it can withstand stresses and shocks and recover its capacities and resources both today and in the future without compromising the natural stock (DFID, 2000).

The sustainable livelihoods approach is defined by Serrat (2017) as a way of thinking about the aims, scope, and main concerns for development activities. According to Majale (2002), the sustainable livelihoods approach is a holistic approach that tries to capture and provide a means of understanding, the fundamental causes, and dimensions of poverty without collapsing the focus on other factors like economic issues and food security. The approach creates a relationship between the causes and impacts of poverty by including the people at the grassroots (Sustainable Livelihoods Support Office DFID, 1999). It is centered on understanding the means of survival for the poor and the vulnerable and why policies and institutions are essential in managing the environment and shaping livelihoods. Based on this approach one must have access to capital assets or livelihood resources such as natural, human, physical, financial, and social capital assets in order to maintain a sustainable livelihood. In this study, the sustainable livelihoods approach is used to assess the contribution that the harvesting of the marula tree made in sustaining the livelihoods of the Beitbridge ward 3 community and the institutional arrangements around the marula tree. The approach also helps to analyse state institutions and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) that have an input in protecting and supporting the production of NTFPs for rural livelihood enhancement. State institutions include Traditional Leaders, Rural District Council (Local Government), Forestry Commission, Environmental Management Agency, as well as NGOs such as Bio-Hub Trust. Lastly, the principal aspects of this research and the sustainable livelihood approach include an assessment of the following:

• The economic contributions to rural communities in ward 3 of Beitbridge.

• Who are the marula tree harvesters?

• Which groups of individuals are involved and to what extent?

• The seasonality of the marula tree.

• What services are available and used?

2.5. Analytical framework

The collected questionnaire data were coded and entered into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 (IBM SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) and checked for errors, as part of the data cleaning exercise. Descriptive statistics used in this paper were mostly percentages and measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode). Inferential statistics were performed through cross-tabulations and t-tests, these were used to get relationships among variables. Inferential statistics helped us consider the probability of sampling error or the possibility that the differences between variables that were measured in the sample could have occurred by chance (Hightower & Scott, 2012).

3. Results

3.1. Demographic characteristics of the surveyed respondents

Table 3 shows the demographic characteristics of the surveyed 300 respondents. A total of 76% of the respondents were male, of which only 9% had gone up to tertiary education. Most of the respondents (72%) had attained secondary education and the remainder had primary-level education. The average age of respondents was between 48 and 51 years for males and females, respectively. The average household size was 6 across all 5 villages and only 21% of the household heads were employed.

Table 3. Household demographics (N = 300)

Gender of HH (%)		Average age HH		Level of education (%)			Employment status (%)
Male	Female	Male	Female	Primary	Secondary	Tertiary	Employed	Unemployed
76	24	48	51	19	72	9	21	79

Notes: HH= Household Head; N=sample size

3.2. Gender responsibilities and marula collection

The gender distribution with respect to marula harvesting in ward 3 is shown in Figure 2. The results revealed that all the household members were involved in marula harvesting. However, females were the main collectors of the marula fruits, accounting for 69% while only 31% were males. Madaula village had the highest number of females harvesting marula at 75%. Mandate village had the lowest number of females at 54% and accounted for the highest number of males collecting marula products at 46%. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the total quantities of marula fruits harvested among villages.

Figure 2. Gender and marula tree products collection in ward 3, Beitbridge district.

3.3. Major sources of income and their contribution to household income in ward 3

The major sources of income for ward 3 are shown are in Figure 3. The results show that the main sources of income for the ward 3 community when marula is out of season are mopane worms collection 17%, livestock or animal rearing at 16%, and marula harvesting at 15%. Financial income during the marula season is shown in Figure 4. The results indicate that during the marula season, the marula tree is the main source of income for the sampled respondents accounting for about 35% while mopane worms contribute 20% to the total household income. The lowest contributors to household incomes were salaries (8%), remittances (5%), and crops (2%).

Figure 3. Major income sources for ward 3, Beitbridge district.

Figure 4. Contribution of livelihoods options to total household income (marula season) in ward 3, Beitbridge district.

3.4. Marula harvesting and utilisation by the community

The utilisation of the marula fruits collected by the 5 villages of ward 3 is shown in Table 4. The results show significant variability in the importance placed on the utilisation of different marula products. In Fula village, people utilize leaves as fodder (30%) for livestock and raw fruits (23%). In Madaula village marula is processed into either oil or jam by 65% of the participants. In Makombe and Mandate villages, the major use of the marula tree was kernels for nuts and fodder, which accounted for 35% and 22%, respectively. In Tshaswingo village, 18% of the village sampled used marula for producing marula beer (Mukumbi). Fodder production accounts for the highest percentages across all the 4 villages. The making of soda and use of the marula tree for the medicinal process was the least important with no usage in more than 2 villages.

Table 4. The uses of marula per village in ward 3, Beitbridge district

Uses of Marula	Fula (N = 60)	Madaula (N = 40)	Makombe (N = 80)	Mandate (N = 50)	Tshaswingo (N = 70)
Additive for porridge	5%	15%	5%	11%	8%
Oil	0%	65%	0	0	16%
Jam	3%	65%	0	0	25%
Fodder	30%	61%	35%	22%	32%
Medicinal	0%	18%	0	0	20%
Raw Fruit	23%	16%	0	0	8%
Soda	0%	8%	1%	0	7%
Liquor or Beer Brewing	0%	15%	0	0	18%
Kennel for nuts	25%	20%	30%	21%	28%

3.5. Harvesting patterns and quantities of marula harvested by ward 3

All participants (N = 300) stated that marula fruits were collected from the ground when they are ripe. Women aged 65 years and older collect the marula fruits. The average marula fruits harvested by the ward 3 community per season was 443 kg per person. There is a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the Madaula village with the highest (697 kg) and Makombe village with the lowest (291 kg) (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Quantities of marula fruits harvested per village in ward 3, Beitbridge district.

The results from Table 5 show prices for each marula product sold in ward 3. The usual price of marula beer in the local market was $ USD 2.00 per liter with each household trading a maximum of 200 liters per season. It was found that a family could earn about $ USD 400.00 per season from marula beer alone. From the survey a liter of marula oil costs $ USD 30 and Madaula village processed 43 litres of marula oil in 2021 giving them a total of $ USD 1290, while marula nuts cost $USD 3.00 per kg. The sale of fresh fruits costs $ USD 0.50 cents per kilogram across all four villages.

Table 5. Prices of marula products

Product	Measure	Price ($USD)
Marula oil	1 Liter	30
Marula jam	1 kilogram	5
Marula butter	1 kilogram	4
Marula nuts	1 kilogram	3
Marula beer	1 Liter	2
Marula fresh fruits	1kilogram	0.50

3.6. Average income from marula per season in ward 3 villages

According to Figure 6, the results of this study show that the average gross seasonal income for 44% of the households ranged from $ USD 301 to $ USD 400 per season. Whereas 20% of the respondents had monthly incomes of between $ USD 201–$ USD 300. The average household income for all the interviewed households per season was $ USD 300.

Figure 6. Seasonal income from marula per village in ward 3, Beitbridge district.

3.7. Community involvement in trading marula tree products

Out of the 300 respondents, 95% of the sample indicated that they were involved in marula trading although only 15% consider it as their main source of income. The results from our current study show that 20 years ago only 8% of the respondents were involved in marula trading and the number increased by 27% in 2021 (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Marula trade over 20 years in ward 3, Beitbridge district.

3.8. Commercialisation and impacts on the environment

In the household survey, 81% of respondents indicated that commercialisation of the marula fruit had a positive effect on the environment and livelihoods. They indicated that during harvesting, fruits were picked from the ground hence, disturbance to the environment is limited. The remainder (19%) indicated a negative effect as no one monitors every tree as they harvest and deforestation of marula trees according to them is on the rise. However, in the key informant interviews, all respondents indicated that picking all the fruits may compromise recruitment processes since the fruit is also the seed. The key informant interviews revealed that the tree is not under a lot of threat as one of the most sought-after parts of the tree is the fruit, which is available in abundance.

3.9. Policies and Institutional framework for NTFPs management

The eight key informant interviews noted the inadequacy of the regulation to control the over-exploitation and the general utilisation of the NTFPs. They stated that there is no direct regulation that sufficiently addresses NTFPs. The key informant interviews also revealed that the Beitbridge Rural District Council (BRDC) is implementing district bylaws to control the management of natural resources. Out of the 8 key informants who participated in the survey, 6 stated that the harvesting of non-timber forest products is mainly controlled by the by-laws that are instituted at the local level by traditional leaders. For example, according to ward bylaws, which strictly state that fruits should only be picked from the ground when ripe while picking all the fruits from the ground is prohibited. Some of the fruits must be left to support regeneration. There is no specific law that deals with harvesting the marula tree. The remaining two key informants said that communities are controlled by government laws that cover all-natural resources. Figure 8 shows a summary of the institutional arrangements in NTFP governance in ward 3. The household questionnaire also revealed that people were not aware of the institutions that control the harvesting of NTFPs. Out of the whole sample, 68% indicated that the rules and regulations to control marula tree utilisation were instituted by traditional leaders whilst 23% stated that it was the government departments especially the Environmental Management Agency. The remaining 7% stated that the management options used are beliefs and cultural values. The remaining 2% were not aware of any rules and regulations. According to key informant interviews, the introduction of local by-laws by the traditional leadership has impacted positively the environment, they stated that they have observed a reduction in the cutting down of the marula tree instead people now protect the trees, and they take care of those growing in their fields to make sure they have a good harvest.

Figure 8. Institutions governing marula utilisation in ward 3, Beitbridge district.

3.10. Marula harvesting as a coping mechanism in ward 3

To cope with frequent droughts the 300 sampled household employed a range of coping strategies though each household used more than one coping mechanism (Figure 9). The coping strategy used by the greatest proportion of households was changed diet (74%), use of NTFPs (70%), selling livestock (44%), savings groups (41%).

Figure 9. Adaptation mechanisms for ward 3, Beitbridge district.

4. Discussions

4.1. Marula utilisation and management

In this study, women consstituted a substantial part of those involved in marula harvesting. According to Burt (2020), while both genders and all age groups are involved in marula harvesting, elderly females tend to dominate the sector. Furthermore, households with more female members tend have a higher dependency on NTFPs, as females are more likely to be engaged in NTFP collection (Habibur et al., 2021). On the contrary in a study by Burt (2020), the harvesting of raw materials like palm leaves in St. Lucia is a role dominated by men and women purchasing the raw materials for craft production. This illustrates cultural dynamics across regions. Young people were less motivated to harvest marula fruits owing to perceived low financial returns. Most young people tend to migrate to urban areas to seek alternative livelihoods.

This study has also found that the value addition on the marula products was a vital source of income. These results corroborate well with the previous study by Shackleton (2004) who reported that local people in Swaziland, Namibia, and Zimbabwe make an income through selling marula beer. The tree is also used for fodder and curative purpose and the results concur with studies by Hillman et al. (2008); Nerd & Mizrahi, (1993) stating that the marula tree has also been used in Israel and by Muok et al. (2000) in west Africa for a wide range of uses including the nutritional, cultural, medicinal, and economic significance. In line with the results of this study, the contribution of the marula tree during the marula season is higher as compared to other seasons. A study by Murye and Pelser (2018) also stated that during the marula season, several people in rural areas of Swaziland harvest marula fruits and seeds for making an extra income. This reliance on the environment often results in the depletion of forest resources (Chipika & Kowero, 2000).

Campbell et al. (1997) observed that trade in marula tree products is increasingly becoming an important income-generating activity for the rural poor and particularly women in Southern Africa. The increasing levels of marula harvesting are thought to be a result of several factors that include unemployment, multiple uses of marula products, market demand, and the introduction of marula processing centers for value addition. For example, the introduction of the marula processing center at Madaula and the processing of marula fruits into high value products like oil has also amplified the prospects for commercialisation. The center was established in 2018 by Bio Hub Trust, a NGO. The current production of value-added products from marula fruits and seeds in Beitbridge has likely, given impetus to rural people, especially women, to harvest marula products on a commercial scale. Ngorima (2006) also showed an upward trend in trading in marula tree products over a 15-year period after the introduction of processing centers in the Zvishavane district of Zimbabwe. This indicates the important role played by enterprise groups in developing the marketing of NTFPs in the area (Ngorima, 2006). In addition, the increase in marula tree utilisation could have also been fuelled by the worsening economic conditions and lack of formal employment (Luebker, 2008). Informal employment has become an important source of livelihood for many people in Zimbabwe (Luebker, 2008). Recently, there has been an increasing demand for marula in the international market and knowledge about the tree has increased as people are becoming aware, for example, of the health benefits of marula products. Fair Trade International (2010) reports that certified marula harvesters receive a fixed Fair-trade premium of 50% above the average market price for every kilogram of marula fruit they sell to processors or Fair-trade certified buyers. This has led to an increase in demand, hence more people get involved in trading. Recent years have seen the greatest increase in the trade of marula fruits and products in Zimbabwe due to the presence of the NTFP processing centers that have been constructed in several districts (Ngorima, 2006).

On the other hand, several respondents in this study felt that the commercialisation of the marula fruit had a positive effect on the environment as there is limited destruction to the trees. This is consistent with results from R. P. Wynberg and Laird (2007), who reported that communities in South Africa and Namibia collected fruits from the ground and the effect on the environment has been very minimal. According to Kugedera (2019), the advantage of gathering fruits from the ground is that there is no destruction to the tree and that it allows the tree growth rate to be maintained and prevented diseases such as fungal infections.

4.2. NTFPs as a coping strategy

In areas where the marula tree is found in abundance, it is used as a coping strategy during times of drought. This study was conducted in a region whose economy is based on livestock production, however, we speculate that due to climate change the profitability of the sector is highly compromised. As a result, the ward 3 community in Beitbridge is using the marula tree to supplement incomes and provide food and medicine at household level. Beitbridge, being a livestock ranching area the marula tree leaves are stored and used as fodder during the dry season as food for their families. The problems come in when there is over-reliance on NTFPs and controlling the ways and levels of extraction for each harvester at the community level is almost impossible. A number of factors could contribute to the over-extraction of the marula fruits in Beitbridge and they include unemployment, the general economic challenges in the country and commercialization initiatives. The findings corroborated Zaku (2013) in a study in Gashaka-Gumti National who reported that NTFPs during harsh climatic conditions were under pressure due to overexploitation.

4.3. Institutional arrangements and policy framework

The key informant interview noted the inadequacy of legislation in Zimbabwe regarding the management of NTFPs and reflected on the need for them to be reviewed and revised. The Communal Lands Forest Produce Act which is supposed to control NTFPs in Zimbabwe does not address utilisation, harvesting, or over-exploitation, it is only focused on the ``use of ``and ``trade on``. The Act is also unclear on who is supposed to harvest and for what purposes. It states that inhabitants are allowed to harvest NTFPs for their own use without a permit. However, the definition of own use is not provided in the Act and it can mean anything from picking and eating to marketing commercially. There is also a challenge of defining an “inhabitant” and an`` outsider``. According to Katerere et al. (1999), the poor management of forests is characterised by contradictions between traditional rules and values and guiding legislation Soe and Yeo-Chang (2019). The unsustainable NTFP extraction and poor regulation frameworks are negatively affecting millions of hectares of natural forest in Myanmar.

During this survey, we noted that there is generally limited government support for regulating the NTFP sector instead more focus has been on the protection of state forests (John, 2005). The fact that communities perceive that the laws for managing the marula tree are instituted by the traditional leaders buttresses this observation. In most rural communities, government authorities are seen as a threat to people’s livelihoods thus the willingness of communities to collaborate with the government departments like the Environmental Management Agency is compromised. This study has noted a range of existing opportunities that can be used to strengthen the management of NTFPs and these include the presence of traditional leaders. Strengthening the role of traditional leaders could help bridge the gap in the management of NTFPs as people usually respect the laws passed from traditional systems. A preceding study by R. P. Wynberg and Laird (2007) in Namibia concurs that traditional leadership is vital in the management and conservation of marula trees. In the past, customary laws and local institutions that are in this instance, better suited to regulate the utilisation of NTFPs were often weakened by the need to institute statutory control over NTFPs (Arnold & Perez, 2001; Michon, 2005). Therefore, there is a need to strengthen laws and local institutions as they operate within communities. The government is already represented in the area by of parastatals such as the Forestry Commission and the Environmental Management Agency (EMA) yet communities hardly mentioned them. Hence, there is need for government to improve initiatives for the management of natural resources such as the marula tree. The role of government is seen mainly as that of providing enforcement (Katerere et al. 2000) and people tend to fear government-appointed officers.

5. Conclusion

The aim of this study was to assess the utilisation and management of the marula tree in ward 3 of Beitbridge district for sustainable livelihoods. The survey data revealed that the harvesting of marula is a major source of income among other livelihood optoons such as livestock production, mopane worms, cropping, remittances, and wages. We found that marula tree products were not only used for consumption but for other purposes such as stock feed, albeit, at a small scale. The increase in marula product use was closely coupled with commercialisation and value-addition initiatives. This suggests that the marula tree was not widely used before these commercialisation and value-addition initiatives. The local bylaws were the main instruments used for regulating the utilisation of marula trees but these need to be backed by legislation to improve efficiency since commercialisation initiatives are likely to result in overutilisation. The marula tree offers a potentially valuable contribution to sustainable livelihoods and yet the NTFP sector has remained marginalised from mainstream economic activity. Given the critical significance of NTFPs in marginal areas of Zimbabwe, policymakers at various levels should ensure that development strategies and plans at all levels clearly integrate the issues of NTFP management to enhance sustainability.

Authors Biography

Sithembelenkosini Mguni is an Environmentalist by profession majoring in Non- Timber Forest Products. She is currently persuing a Master of Philosophy in Environmental and Geographical Sciencies specialising on the Marula tree at the Lupane State University.

Onnalena Gwate holds a PhD in Water Resource Science from Rhodes University. He has been involved in academia and research for over ten years in the Savanna, Grasslands and Albany Thicket biomes of Southern Africa under Lupane State University (Zimbabwe), Rhodes University (South Africa) and University of the Free State (South Africa). His current, research interests revolve around understanding the impacts of global change on ecosystem services and how natural resources could be managed sustainably in the Anthropocene.

Phibion Chiwara

Mr Chiwara holds an MSc in Geoinformation Science and Earth Observation for Environmental Modeling and Management. He has special interest in the application of GIS and Remote sensing in carbon and biomass estimation. He has worked in non government and academia sectors.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Bio-Hub Trust for its support during data collection. To the Beitbridge ward 3 community, thank you for the patience and hospitality that you showed during data collection. Lastly, we would like to thank Mr. Zibusiso Mguni for proofreading this work and helping with data analysis.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This work would not have been possible without the financial support from the Environmental Management Agency, Zimbabwe.