India and France bilateral partnership for advancing strategic autonomy in the Indo-Pacific region: Special reference to the Indo-French strategic partnership

Abstract

In the last decade, the geopolitical construct of the Indo-Pacific Region (IPR) has emerged as a key strategic location in the twenty-first century. IPR has become the central point of convergence, competition, and alignment. The aim of this study is to determine Indo-French cooperation in many areas of IPR. This study focuses on investigating the Indo-French bilateral partnership and the kind of strategic autonomy that has been pioneered and accelerated by India and France in the IPR. This research relies on empirical analysis to explore the goal and objective, and the qualitative mixed method involves investigating the answers to questions. This research focuses on two research questions: the extent to which the French and Indian synergies have achieved success as a strategic partnership and why is the Indo-Pacific region so important to the bilateral partnership of both countries? As a result, the strategic partnership between India and France is on the right track, and both sides have a common understanding of working together in the IPR. Furthermore, both sides continued to increase their corridors for multiple cooperation in the IPR.

Keywords:

• India
• France
• Indo-Pacific
• security & maritime
• strategic autonomy
• geopolitics

1. Introduction

The Indo-Pacific Region has emerged as an important region over the last decade. The new construct of the geopolitical paradigm gained a valuable juncture in the trade, security, green energy, and maritime domains. Indian policy has been supporting French initiatives in the IPR since 2000. In the last decade, the Indo-Pacific has become an extra-regional power centre in the context of trade routes, geo-economic cooperation, and preservation of ocean diversity, thereby gaining immense attention in terms of geostrategic importance in global politics. It has become a geographized political and economic reality that has been boosting and hosting critical trade routes and maritime connectivity networks between states and has huge biological resources (Haldar, 2022).

French President Jacques Chirac visited New Delhi in 1998 and drew a line of strategic partnership between India and France. Both sides signed an MoU to establish mutual cooperation in the areas of defence and space. Besides defense and space, the main areas of cooperation have developed in the predominant sector of investment and trade by France and India (Racine, 2016a). As a leading regional player, India advocates the narrative of the Indo-Pacific concept in the Indian Ocean region. France’s island in the Indian Ocean region with 1.5 million inhabitants and its importance and relevance paved the way for launching a bilateral partnership with India in the maritime domain as a residential actor. India’s open support to France, making stronger ties in the IPR and the European Union under the French Presidency, brought the EU as a key actor in the IOR. France’s strategy with India’s understanding and focus is driven by its efforts to emerge as a recognized resident player in the emerging area of IPR. In this context, both countries’ synergies in the region support other littoral countries’ interests as well. In light of several issues, both countries’ policies aim to expedite the geostrategy agenda along with diplomacy across the region.

This research uses an empirical method based on qualitative comparative analysis. This study uses primary and secondary data to analyse India’s and France’s strategic partnerships. Data were collected from various think tanks, embassies’ reports, online materials from governments and non-government agencies, newspaper editorials, television, and online YouTube interviews. As secondary materials, this study used published journal articles, archival reports, and books. On the other hand, this research relies on the following hypothesis, first, “France and India’s strategic partnership has been achieving a new milestone and cementing bilateral cooperation for future roadmap” and second “India’s security and defence are the principal approaches to support France’s position in the Indo-Pacific.”

The Indo-Pacific region is a central geographical location and has recently competed with the economic and trade concept of Asia-Pacific. This region includes 40 countries, which also represent huge territories and populations. The economy is the principal concern of the concept of the Asia-Pacific region. It is deeply rooted to create intergovernmental regimes to accelerate trade and investment between the ASEAN and China and other economies i. e., Australia, Japan and the US. In contrast, the concept of IPR focuses on cooperation to overcome security issues and interdependencies in the region. There are many countries focusing to create a new security platform to secure trade and economic cooperation in the IPR. The emergence of India and Japan as stronger security actors, and intensifying China and the USA rivalries as well, are the core factors driving governments to adopt the IPR as the stronger strategic frame. The IPR model of cooperation between major economic powers backslides the Asia Pacific concept of trade and cooperation (Auslin, 2010; Michel & Passarelli, 2014; Scott, 2012). “In this way, attempts to rescale from the Asia-Pacific to the Indo-Pacific not only expand the geographic scale of Asian regional institutions. They also functionally transform Asia from being an economic- to a security-oriented region” (Wilson, 2018). Although never formally defined, the 21-member Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group has recognised a working definition of the Asia-Pacific composition. The term “Indo-Pacific” is repeatedly used in official statements while the Asia-Pacific is absent. Does APR still a more viable concept as a political region? Asia Pacific is still a viable concept in the Pacific region to achieve the ultimate goal of trade, business and economy between member states (Ravenhill, 2001; The White House, 2017).

The Indo-Pacific region is important for three major reasons. First, it accounts for sixty percent of the global GDP and the world’s three major economies involved in the Indo-Pacific region, i.e., the USA, Japan and China. The Indo-Pacific maritime domain is also representing the globe’s 60 percent of trade and economic activities through water. The Sea Line of Communication (SLOC) in the IPR is critical to the exercise of economic and trade activities for prosperity and the establishment of rule base order. In an era of geoeconomics and geopolitics contestation, this region has huge importance to the engagement in the blue economy and military exercises for security concerns (Chaudhury, 2021). France and India successfully organised joint military exercises in the Indian Ocean Region. In 2021–22, France has emerged as India’s key trading partner with annual trade between both sides accounting the USD 12.42 billion. France is also the 11^th largest investor in India with a cumulative investment from January 2000 to June 2022 of around USD 10.31 billion. It is 1.70 percent of the total FDI inflow into India (Devdiscourse, 2023).

2. Literature review and theoretical background

In August 2007, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe addressed the Indian Parliament on the importance of the Pacific and Indian Oceans as “seas of prosperity and freedom.” He added the term “broader Asia” and called for the area as the sea of the clearest transparency for multilateral cooperation. Later, Abe’s vision and concept of this region emerged as the concept of the “Indo-Pacific.” In 2007, Australia, India, Japan, and the United States introduced the Indo-Pacific concept (Choong, 2019). President Barack Obama pivoted his plans towards the “Indo-Pacific” region with the establishment of the Indo-Pacific Economic Corridor (IPEC). Obama’s policy strategically connected the Pacific and Indian Oceans as a new concept of an “Indo-Pacific” region instead of the Asia-Pacific region (Scott, 2018).

French Foreign Minister Catherine Colonna stated that during a visit to India, France and India share a comprehensive strategy for the Indo-Pacific that seeks to provide tangible solutions for maritime security, regional cooperation, climate change adaptation and mitigation, biodiversity protection, and healthcare. Further, she focused on the “partnership for the Indo-Pacific and a rules-based international order.” Both countries aimed to establish deeper and separate trilateral partnerships with Australia and Saudi Arabia. The two sides agreed to the establishment of the Indo-Pacific Trilateral Development Cooperation Fund (IPTDCF). India and France also agreed to the resumption of cooperation under the India (France) Australia trilateral mechanism (Business Standard, 2022). India had a stronger strategic partnership with France in 1998. The defense sector, civil nuclear power, and space are the key priority areas for strategic cooperation between India and France. The French and Indo-Pacific bilateral partnerships extend cooperation with other countries in the Indo-Pacific region. In the maritime domain, both countries are committed to influencing the Pacific and Indian Oceans (Racine, 2016b).

France is a resident player in the region because of its overseas province in the Indian Ocean Region (ICR). Mayotte and Reunion are the key islands for France in the region, with a naval base of the French Navy. India is receiving support from France to hold joint military exercises in this area (Lawale & Ahmad, 2021). In March 2018, during a visit to New Delhi, French President Emmanuel Macron stated the idea with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi for cooperation in the IPR. Both countries focus on cooperation with Australia in the Pacific domain to utilize sea routes for trade and economic activities (Kapur, 2022).

The French government has a policy to provide the same level of technology as India. French Ambassador Emmanuel Lenain in New Delhi stated that France decided to share the most promising technologies and equipment with India to boost and deepen partnerships in the IPR (The Hindu, 2022a). France and India work together on research and development (R&D) in the region for the purpose of autonomy. Researchers, scientists, skilled trainers, and professors on both sides are working together to strengthen Indian and French positions in the IPR. The French embassy in New Delhi also provides scholarships for Indian researchers to gain high-level training in French institutions (Bharti et al., 2022).

India plays the role of balance of power as a regional competitor of Chinese assertiveness in the APR. The Chinese growing foothold and its concept of “Pearls of Strings” have been encircling India through the lens of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The balance of power theory in international relations (IR) demonstrates that two or more countries’ alliances may secure their survival, which can prevent another state from gaining more military power to suppress others (Waltz, 1979). The balance of power logic is related to neighbours’ military build-up and alliance-making. India and France have had deep strategic partnerships in the past two decades. It has been a success story for both countries since 1998.

This study relies on the alliance theory, which is a model of strategic partnerships in international relations. In the area of defense and maritime security, military alliances would play a role in defense power to maintain law and order in the region. India and France have strong defense and security cooperation to secure peace and prosperity. A recurring external threat is a key concern in the form of an alliance to counter it. Alliance theory is understood as the formal association of two or more countries for the utilization of the military to prevent external threats and other specified circumstances (Snyder, 2007; Wilkins, 2019, p. 13). The theory of alliance formally correlates with defense and deterrence, which is helpful in protecting from third parties, and alliance states are beneficial to structure ambition in international politics. France and India want to strengthen their positions in the IPR to accelerate trade and economic activities (Morrow, 2003, p. 67). The “aggression of capabilities” is a principal driver of the formation of alliances by the global player to protect its interests. In the IPR region, both countries face security challenges from external actors; hence, India and France focus on each other to build a strong alliance (Lake, 1996; Walt, 1987; Waltz, 1979).

3. Data and methods

The data were collected from various governments, think tanks, international organizations, the European Union, Freedom House, and other websites. This study uses primary and secondary data to investigate Indo-French strategic cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region. The research also used archival documents, embassies-published reports, ministries published reports, and newspaper editorial articles. Apart from these sources, this research describes military-related documents and agreements between governments and online media discussions on the growing partnership between India and France.

Comparative qualitative analysis was applied to calculate the deeper cooperation between India and France in the areas of security, economy, and partnership in the maritime domain (Klotz et al., 2008). This method has comparatively described the Indo-French strategic partnership since 1998. The comparative analysis discussed both sides, focusing on multiple cooperation and accelerating strategic partnerships every year. This study also relies on empirical research and discussion of the growing partnership between India and France. This research deeply engaged in discussing the questions accordingly convergent design of mixed methods and analysing data simultaneously. Thus, this research explains various qualitative and quantitative data to find out the prime objective of the Indo-French strategic partnership to accelerate the vision of Indo-Pacific. An empirical study explains research as a scientific discussion and analysis of the general phenomenon and some specific cases of bilateral, trilateral, quadrilateral and multilateral partnerships (Powner, 2014). In this paper, the tools of the empirical method are to utilise the find out scientific discussions and development between India and France for partnership in the Indo-Pacific region.

4. Formation of alliances and its role

This research intends to focus on how France and India are cementing their bilateral relationship to achieve strategic convergence in the region of IPR. India is a resident player in this region and the French have two islands in the Indian Ocean Region (IOC), these are central aspects of strengthening its strategic autonomy in the IPR. Furthermore, this study elucidates that defence and security are the key concern to exploring the maritime area of the IPR to extend joint support to trade, space, blue economy, and ocean biodiversity. Both sides agreed to work for peace, stability, a welfare programme for littoral countries, and strategic autonomy (Gill, 2023). The Indo-Pacific is an adequate framework for “Trilateral Dialogue,” the economy and security cooperation. Australia, France, and India are key partner countries in the region that have been enhancing deeper partnerships and boosting their positions in land and water. These countries are trying to build a coalition of middle powers within the Indo-Pacific (Wirth & Jenne, 2022). France and the United Kingdom (UK) have a security presence in the region, as European countries have supported the European interest and boosted other countries’ interests in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. France’s overseas policies and territories in the region provide it with a unique position to other European countries. France has been proven to have a “residency status” in the region and Paris’s growing focus on maritime trade routes and security in the region (Atanassova-Cornelis, 2020). “France’s renewed interest in deepening its security engagement in Asia, both converges with Japan’s policy of a ‘proactive contribution to peace’, thereby facilitating alignment that is centred on the Indo-Pacific conceptualisation of the region. As for France, while it has in recent years sought to establish a network of Indo-Pacific strategic partnerships with like-minded democratic nations, including Japan, Australia and India, and has increased its presence in the South China Sea (SCS), it has been careful not to present this as anti-China coalition-building, focusing instead on engagement with Beijing” (Pajon, 2018).

The French government, under the leadership of Emmanuel Macron, understands the emerging security issues in the Indo-Pacific. “A security continuum which extends from Djibouti to French Polynesia and from the shores of East and Southern Africa to the American coasts.” In 2018, French President Emmanuel Macron announced their strategy to cooperate with like-minded states to accelerate security and economic ties, and has been trying to establish a stronghold in the region through the region’s development (Grare, 2020). According to the External Affairs Ministry of India (MEA), S. Jaishankar, the French and Indian governments’ commitment to the bilateral relationship must be strengthened. Both sides also agreed on a stronger strategic partnership to “ensure peace, stability, and security in the Indo-Pacific based on common beliefs in the rules-based international order and strategic autonomy”. The Indian National Security Advisor (NSA) Ajit Doval and his French counterpart Emmanuel Bonne have had broad discussions on defense and security partnerships (Hindustan Times 2023).

India and France support a multi-polar world and want to pave way for equal opportunity and partnerships in the IPR. Both sides don’t want to support singular power politics and neither support the hegemony of any power group from the world nor support an authoritarian agenda of other power groups in the IPR. New Delhi and Paris are extensively in the favour of strategic autonomy to pioneer the bilateral partnership. The French Presidency of the European Union established a successful strategic partnership with India to boost Asia-Europe connectivity. French President Macron emphasized that the India-France strategy for the Indo-Pacific region engages based on common interest and mutual understanding with prioritizing the diversification of the region through partners. Both countries are critical of bloc politics and do not focus on China and US rivalry in the region. India has always supported a pluralist approach and inclusive politics. This strategic autonomy means both countries want to establish a “rule base order” and a Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) for other economies as well in the IPR (Lee, 2018).

China is an established economy in this region and in the position, dominates over other blocks and very much aware of Quad countries’ engagement. PLA and PLA Navy have a strong presence in the Indian Ocean to provide a hedging-free zone for China’s trade through the maritime domain. It is also working for anti-pirate and other elements which are bearing the anti-China sentiment to restrict its expansion in the region. India criticised China’s domination and debt diplomacy with South Asian countries (Panda & Gunasekara-Rockwell, 2021). China also settled down its first overseas military base in Djibouti and has a strong position in the region of East Africa and the Horn of Africa as well. China’s BRI projects almost cover all African countries and have a stronger tie-up with Ethiopia and other Eastern African countries. Beijing expedites continues to surpass the world’s other economies in the competition of geopolitics. BRI framework of cooperation in the region supports China’s geostrategic policy and gains support from littoral countries of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The MSRI and SREB are connecting Indo-Pacific countries at a wider level and occupying many countries’ ports in this region, which is a challenging question for India and France’s partnership and other economies as well (Bharti, 2023).

China’s economic partnership with deeply rooted with countries of Asia-Pacific. The Asia Pacific economy and China’s economy are integrated with each other and are based independently. In fact, there are many Asia-Pacific countries that are principal trade and economic partners of China and they are also part of the supply chain in this region. China’s stake and interest in the IPR is clear and states that the new Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF) should facilitate prosperity, economic and development cooperation in the region. China insists that there should be no undermining and splitting of existing mechanisms in the APR. China’s policy working for its BRI expansion across the world to grab more geopolitics and geostrategic upper hand on its rival countries. China wants to achieve great global prestige and seems to create different dimensions from the Western economies (Lau, 2023). China’s “String of Pearls” strategy is strengthening its position in the IPR. The MSRI is one major component of the BRI, through this initiative China is strengthening and expanding its position in the maritime domain of the Pacific and Indian Oceans and supporting the Chinese Sea Line of Communication (SLC) to acquire foreign oil and trade routes. China’s military doctrine is an integral part of its diplomacy to provide protection to multi-billion-dollar investments in infrastructure development projects in the IPR and other parts of the world as well (Bharti, 2022b).

5. India and France on maritime security

India is the largest naval power in the IPR and has fostered maritime cooperation with many littoral countries in the region, ensuring the security issues of shipping in the IPR. There are many littoral countries in this region, including Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, France, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, and Tanzania. French and South Africa have a strong naval capacity, and the rest of the littoral countries have limited or negligible maritime security power in the context of the navy. The role of the Indian Navy has increased in the region, providing security against piracy to other littoral countries. In response to the Indian Navy’s support of smaller countries, these countries seem to do better in partnership with India (Upadhyaya, 2014).

French President Emmanuel Macron and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi regularly communicated to build a more robust cooperation between the two countries. Franco-Indian dialogue on several security issues in the IPR, including maritime cooperation, has helped strengthen the strategic partnership between India and France for a long time. Both countries agreed during the fifth session of the regular meeting to enhance cooperation projects, regular exchanges, and strengthening relations between the two countries’ navies. India and France have been reinforced to further deepen cooperation in the IPR and reaffirm through commitment in this region. The Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), and the Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) are regional forums where India and France are strengthening their maritime partnerships (France Diplomacy, 2021). Maritime security cooperation is a key framework for strengthening bilateral strategic partnerships between the two countries. Maritime security cooperation has become an important aspect of French-Indo strategic advancement in IPR. India and France have shown immense mutual cooperation in the preservation of biodiversity, safety, and security in the maritime domain. The interests of both countries in this region are served by profound bilateral cooperation in the maritime context (Pandey, 2019).

In recent years, France and India have been enhancing successful cooperation in the maritime domain through park partnerships, regular military exercises, anti-pirate policies, and navies cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region (IOC). India is a growing economic country in this region and a resident player, and maritime military capacities and strategic ambitions to cooperate with France to restrict other dictates in the water. France is recognizing geopolitical shifts and has begun to work in the IPR to strengthen its position and recognize India as an Indo-Pacific resident player in the region. The Indian Ocean is debated among global players, and India and France understand that this area is important for both countries to advance their strategies in the maritime domain. India and France are eager to expand their long-standing cooperation with the Indian Ocean. French President Emmanuel Macron and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi agreed on bilateral cooperation in the area of space research and maritime domain. Both countries signed an MoU on the implementation arrangement between the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and the National Centre for Space Studies (CNES) in France for mutual work in maritime domain awareness in the IOR (Bharti, 2022a).

In November 2022, the Indian and French Air Forces launched joint exercises in Rajasthan, India. Both sides declared that it was a successful exercise that would pave the way for further regular joint exercises and will cement the next stops of the Indian Navy’s Boeing P 81 and French Navy’s Falcon 50, conducting mutual surveillance towards the Mozambique Channel for the purpose of ocean mapping, as well as towards Mauritius and Southwest IOR. This was a successful experiment by Navies in both countries. Moreover, through this joint surveillance improvisation, both strategic allies strengthened their positions in the maritime domain to combat piracy, drug trafficking, arms smuggling, and the presence of extraneous powers on the eastern seaboard of Africa to strengthen their reach across the region. “While Chinese surveillance, ballistic missile tracking ship Yuan Wang 6 is presently located around 90-degree East Ridge of the Indian Ocean south of Indonesia, the Indian and French surveillance aircraft will be conducting the ocean bed mapping and area patrol around French Reunion Islands for the second time this year” (Hindustan Times, 2022).

6. Franco-Indian approach to dialogue on space security

India and France started joint cooperation in the 1960s on sounding rockets launched in Thumba (India). Since 1960, the French and Indian governments have agreed to work together in various areas of space-related activities in the coming decades. India is engaged in space security dialogue to strengthen its strategic advancement in the IOR. India is the third country in which France has initiated space cooperation to deepen connections in this region. France has been a trusted and tested strategic partner in India since its inception in 1998. The space and nuclear domains of cooperation between both countries reflect confidence and trust and cement further opportunities for strengthening strategic partnerships. India and France are working together to cooperate with other like-minded countries to work on the emerging issues of a worsening space security environment. The growing challenges and threats must be addressed within a suitable timeframe to restrict incorrect affection (Rajagopalan, 2021). French President Emmanuel Macron shaped Indo-Pacific engagement on a larger scale in comparison to former Presidents of France. Under Macron’s presidency, France paved the way for a deeper space partnership with India. Macron himself was too enthusiastic about France’s cooperation in the fields of space, security, and economy towards the IPR (Karambelkar, 2021).

During the state visit of the Indian Prime Minister to Paris, the joint exhibition was organized by the ISRO and CNES in April 2015 to the completion of 50 years of cooperation in the space area. The two MoUs were signed during this visit by Modi, with his French counterpart in Paris. The two satellites jointly developed, Megha Tropiques and SARAL, were released by both countries during the state visit of PM Narendra Modi (Embassy of India, n.d..). According to the agreement of the two countries on 12 October 2011, the Megha-Tropiques satellite, and on 25 February 2013, the SARAL satellite was jointly launched (France in India, 2022). The space agencies of France (CNES) and India (ISRO) formalize many joint space programmes that are based on the MoU 2015. In 2019, India’s Oceansat-3 satellite hosted the French’s Agro system for monitoring and tracking the climate. Both sides jointly developed a satellite called the Trishna. ISRO also received support from the French for interplanetary missions to Mars and Venus. ISRO successfully launched another “satellite launch technology” in January 2017 (France in India, 2022).

In March 2018, the ambitious partnership on “Joint Vision for Space Cooperation,” signed by France and India, paved the way for coordinating with space and maritime domains. This collaboration enabled the commencement of mutual work in the Indo-Pacific region for microsatellites for maritime surveillance. Moreover, in the context of the future launch of human space flights, India is getting the support of France. In May 2020, the CNES signed an agreement with ISRO to cooperate in the context of support provided to the Indian Agency. This support is related to equipment and training for Indian operators and aerospace medicine physicians (France in India, 2022).

The Ministry of External Affairs of India (MEA) stated that Indian External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar and Minister for Europe and Foreign Affairs of France Catherine Colonna jointly reaffirmed their mutual commitment to accelerate Indo-French cooperation in the context of evolving geopolitical approach in the IPR, where both countries have a stronger presence as resident players. Both ministers also praised the cooperative areas of defence, civil nuclear, space, and others. India’s External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar said,’ As far as our relations with France are concerned, you are all aware that this is a strategic partnership. But perhaps even that term does not entirely capture how close and strong our ties have become in recent years” (Business Standard, 2022).

Undoubtedly, India and France have emerged as strategic partners in recent years. The defense and security partnership provides structural changes to boost strategic autonomy in IPR. Many defences deal between India and France established strong pillars of bilateral strategic partnerships between both countries. This strategic partnership nurtures strong ties-up in the areas of air, on and under the sea, cyberspace, and including space. French President Emmanuel Macron’s visit to New Delhi in 2018 and Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s state visit to Paris in 2022 advanced this structural partnership. All of these operations strengthen the agenda of both countries in the IPR. In the context of IPR, many other global powers unanimously worked to destabilize the Indo-Pacific concept. However, India and France have committed to defending the rule-based order and free and open Indo-Pacific (Observer Research Foundation, 2022).

India and France established a pragmatic framework of convergence between two emerging major powers in the Indo-Pacific region, representing the East and West. Recognizing the international geopolitical and geoeconomic landscape, both countries managed to effectively broaden and deepen their partnerships to address contemporary issues and trends in global politics. Essentially, in the Pacific and Indian Ocean regions of the sea line of communication for trade and commerce, activities to gain the upper hand among other global powers. China is the biggest threat to India and other global players in the IPR region. France, as a European power, maintains extensive territories spanning from the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) to the South Pacific and has more than 1.6 billion French people. French has two islands in the Indian Ocean Region, namely, the Mayotte and Réunion Islands’ geopolitical parameters are strategic support points in the maritime domain. France also has a formidable military presence in the military context to counter the threat of global power from the opposition block (Gill, 2023). China’s expansive strategy and its extensive activities in the Pacific and Indian Oceans provoke another global power in the region, and France and India feel that their strategic interests contradict in the context of Chinese aggression towards the IPR.

7. India and France strategic partnership

In 1998, a strategic partnership was established between India and France. They started working on international issues through mutual understanding. Since 1998, both countries have been strengthening their bilateral relationships through defense deals and economic cooperation. This gave an impetus to support the growing relationship in the context of partnerships on the global platform. When India conducted a nuclear test in Pokhran in 1998, even though all world communities were against this test, India received support from France. This diplomatic support from France to India has ignited strategic partnerships (Ankita, 2022).

In February 2013, French President Hollande visited India and met Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and other political leaders in New Delhi. During his presidency, Hollande visited New Delhi twice and Mumbai, where he interacted with groups of Indian businessmen. French President Hollande’s state visit started in New Delhi for the second time, from January 24 to 26, 2016, as the chief guest of India’s Republic Day celebration. On 26 January 2016, the French military contingent joined the parade on the Kartavya Path (Rajpath). France became the first foreign country invited by India to participate in the Republic Day celebration in 2016 (Embassy of India in Paris, 2018).

8. Defence cooperation

India’s defence relations with France began seven decades earlier. This relationship cements the strategic partnership between both countries, and India strongly supports France’s Indo-Pacific approach. India and France have jointly conducted exercises and have established a robust network of military cooperation through regular contact. Since the last decade, France has agreed to meets India’s defense needs. Thus, New Delhi has received immense support from Paris to develop the defense and civilian nuclear industries in the country as part of “Self-Reliant India.” This partnership expedites India’s deeper strategic autonomy in the defence line, which supports the strengthening of Indian defence and security in the IPR. Since its inception in the Indian Air Force, India has been modernizing the Mirage 2000 fighter jet. India successfully induced 36 Rafales fighter jets and six Scorpene submarines approved in 2005, and the Rafale fighter jet contracts were signed with France in 2016 (French Embassy in New Delhi, 2022).

Under the “Make in India” framework of cooperation, France is on board with Indian defense industries to co-develop high-technology military and defense systems. This cooperation between India and France is working together on futuristic technologies, and both sides are enthusiastic about accelerating the partnership at the highest level. During the strategic dialogue, both sides agreed to expand their defence cooperation on a larger scale and develop high-tech weaponry. French President Emmanuel Macron and India’s NSA Ajit Doval together decided to cooperate at the defense level, which should be a principal priority, and France also agreed to offer a Safran aircraft engine to India. Emmanuel Bonne, the diplomatic adviser to the French President and the NSA of India Ajit Doval, shared ideas on the secure and stable Indo-Pacific. Both countries understand that rule-based global order counters China’s position in the IPR (Chowdhury, 2023). India and France have agreed to close cooperation to boost and promote joint development and co-production, as well as compatibility and training (The Times of India, 2023).

The 4^th India-France annual defense dialogue started in New Delhi on 28^th 28 November 2022, chaired by Indian Defence Minister Rajnath Singh and the French Minister of the Armed Forces Sebastien Lecornu. The French Embassy in New Delhi stated that “The Armed Forces Minister’s visit to India reaffirms France’s engagement in the Indo-Pacific and India’s centrality in the French strategy for the region. The strategic and defence issues and shared the commitment to work together on enhancing cooperation in bilateral, regional and multilateral fora, with a focus on the Indo-Pacific region. The French Minister acknowledged India’s indigenous potential and self-reliance. The discussions ranged from enhancing cooperation in areas of mutual interest to the maritime challenges in the IOR. A wide range of bilateral, regional and defence industrial cooperation issues were discussed during the dialogue,” (The Hindu 2022b). Both countries’ ministers agreed to a more profound security and military cooperation to “increase the scope and complexity of joint military exercises in the maritime domain. The “Make in India” initiative of the Indian government to boost defence-industrial partnerships is supported by the French authority. Organizations in both countries are working together to manufacture and assemble products in India. The Indian Defence Minister Rajnath Singh said that “Had warm and fruitful discussions with the Defence Minister of France, Mr Sebastien Lecornu … A wide range of bilateral, regional and defence industrial cooperation issues were discussed during the dialogue,” (Radio France Internationale, 2022).

Both countries also agreed to the continuity of military exercises by three services (Army, Navy and Air Force). They talked about strengthening maritime cooperation and focusing on naval exercises by both sides’ navies in the Indian Ocean region. India and France recently held a joint bilateral Air Exercise “Garuda” in India’s Jodhpur Air Force Station. It was successfully organized by the Indian and French Air Forces (Ministry of Defence, 2022). The Embassy of India in Paris satiated that “Doval reiterated that France is one of India’s premier global and Indo-Pacific partners,”. France’s commitment to strengthening its cooperation in the IPR through strategic dialogue with India and boosting its presence in the region as a “resident power”. The Embassy also said that “India welcomed EU’s Indo-Pacific strategy and looked forward to French presidency of the European Union in the first half of 2022 as an opportunity to give further shape to EU’s engagement in the Indo-Pacific region, including in security, connectivity, sustainability and economic development,” (The Economic Times, 2021).

The French Ambassador Emmanuel Lenain stated that India is considered the “best partner” of France since the strategic partnership started between the two countries. India believes that France has been providing the best technology and equipment, which has caused that “trust” to be established from both sides to strengthen bilateral strategic partnerships. The French envoy said that both countries’ companies worked together in defense industries to develop the “equipment of the future’. India’s procurement of 36 Rafale fighter jets from France has led to a deeper bilateral partnership and strengthened its defense partner as a European country. In September 2016, the inter-governmental agreement on defense deals proved that India and France were the two key defense partners. In New Delhi, the French Ambassador says that defence has always been a strong framework of cooperation between the two countries. This type of strategic partnership is based on a relationship of trust that has lasted for many decades (Business Insider, 2022).

India and France are on the same page regarding more serious bilateral cooperation in IPR and paving the way for a strong presence in maritime security. On defense partnerships, French Foreign Minister Colonna’s first visit to India and her counterpart, India’s S. Jaishankar, jointly welcomed the French multinational Safran Group’s decision to establish an aircraft engine facility in Hyderabad, India. The External Affairs Minister stated that France would invest USD 150 million to set up this project. This defense agreement came into force during the successful five-week-long power-projection military drill by the Indian and French air forces in the IPR. Thus, India’s foreign affairs met France’s criteria of defense cooperation, and the French government advanced its strategic partnership with India to secure the Indo-Pacific region for fruitful cooperation with other littoral countries from this region (Mattoo, 2022).

9. Civil nuclear cooperation

In 2008, India received support from the US, France, Russia, and the UK, and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) granted India a “clean waiver. In 2008, India started civil nuclear trade cooperation with non-NPT countries across the world (the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons) (Embassy of India in France & Principality of Monaco, n.d).

In the context of “French nuclear diplomacy,” the French government’s policy utilizes civil nuclear cooperation agreements (NCAs) to advance specific strategic and commercial interests. French President Sarkozy and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh agreed to announce an NCA to obtain 300 tons of uranium every year with a contract for AREVA. India and France signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) for the establishment of two to six EPRs in the Indian city of Jaitapur for twenty-five years of fuel. Both governments completed contractual negotiations for the USD 10 billion agreement to strengthen bilateral partnerships in civil nuclear (Tandler, 2014). On 6^th 6 December 2010, the French and Indian governments agreed to sign the framework agreement for sourcing two units from AREVA, a French company responsible for supplying uranium to fuel them (Gupta, 2011). India and France signed various scientific and bilateral cooperation agreements to agree with the development of the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Indo-French bilateral relations are binding within the framework of the agreement on exchanges relating to cooperation and technical information. This cooperation is based on the peaceful use of nuclear energy on the right path (the Embassy of India in France and the Principality of Monaco, n.d.).

10. India-France economic & commercial relations

India and France cooperated in the economy. Various French companies are involved in railways, smart city projects, tourism, renewable energy, and food processing. India and France worked together in the areas of economy and trade, which are the key components of bilateral relationships in both countries. Since the 1990s, India and France have been cementing their cooperation, and several states visited by the Indian Prime Minister in Paris and the French President in New Delhi have strengthened and nurtured deeper economic and trade activities. To date, twelve Indian Prime ministers visited Paris; this journey started in 1992, and eight French presidents visited New Delhi. The growing French interest in Asia and Asian markets, as well as India, supports Paris in the concept of the Indo-Pacific framework of cooperation. India is a trustful economic and defense partner of France from the IPR and has continuously supported French economic connectivity in Asian markets. New Delhi extended its support to Paris and contributed to the broadening of France’s economic link in this region. Both governments are eager to support each other to benefit from economic and trade cooperation at the international level. Investments from France have increased since 2000 in India and have established many factories related to railways, agribusiness, defense, space, and other projects (Embassy of India in France & Principality of Monaco, 2022).

Table 1 shows that From January to December 2017, the fiscal year total trade growth increased by 24.79 per cent between France and India. In fiscal year 2021, total trade has increased by 39.17%, which shows that both countries have been strengthening their economic cooperation every year. Both countries’ trade has registered slight growth every year in the following sectors recorded growth in descending order: financial service, telecommunication, computer and information services, cultural, leisure and personnel services, pension and insurance services, and the manufacturing sector as well (Embassy of India in France & Principality of Monaco, 2022).

Table 1. India and France trade in goods in euro million (excluding military equipment)

Year	Indian Exports to France	French Exports to India	Total Trade	Balance of Trade for India	Year of Year (%) Changes in Total Trade
2012	4,656	3,256	7,912	+1,400	+5.98
2013	4,440	2,713	7,153	+1,727	−9.59
2014	5,216	2,704	7,920	+2,502	+10.70
2015	5,218	2,703	8,548	+2,196	+7.91
2016	4,669	3,910	8,580	+759	+0.37
2017	5,362	5,345	10,707	+17	+24.79
2018	5,993	5,529	11,522	+463	+7.81
2019	6,238	5,358	11,596	+880	+0.64
2020	4,809	4,235	9,045	+574	−21.99
2021	6,702	5,886	12,588	+816	+39.17

Source: French Ministry for Economy and Finance (data rounded off to the nearest million €)

According to the United Nations (UN), the COMTRADE database on Indian exports to France accounted for USD 6.13 billion in fiscal year 2021, which is an analysis of international trade data from the UN (Trading Economics, 2023b). France is ahead of India to export, and India also received USD 6.95 billion in fiscal year 2021 from France. Both countries are accelerating trade partners in a competitive way to achieve the goal of Trading Economics (2023a) (IPR).

Table 2 shows that both India and France have equal exports and imports. Since 2016-17, the trade of both parties has increased, which is a positive sign between India and France. There is no trade deficit between India and France. In 2020, both countries' trade has increased to 6.69 percent. Table 3 shows that India is importing from France in different areas, for example, aircraft, spacecraft, electrical, electronic equipment machinery, nuclear reactors, boilers optical, technical, medical apparatus, organic chemical, plastics and pharmaceutical products. France’s export to India’s boosted its defence and security sectors, apart from this area, both countries’ bilateral cooperation is based on mutual understanding in all aforementioned principles. In 2020, France exported USD 4.79 billion to India. The main products that France exported to India were helicopters, planes, and spacecraft amounted to USD 1.12 billion, gas turbines of USD 285 million and broadcasting accessories around of USD 200 million. Since 1998, French exports to India have increased at the rate of 6.27 per cent. French export amounted to USD 1.05 billion in 1995 and in 2020 it has increased to USD 4.79 billion (OEC, 2020).

Table 2. Trade between India and France in the last five years (Euro in Million)

Year (January to December)	Indian Exports to France	French Exports to India	Total	Increase and decreased (year of year)
2016	1,775	1,463	3,238	−5.04
2017	2,563	1,739	4,302	+32.85
2018	2,459	1,928	4,387	+1.97
2019	2,463	2,004	4,467	+1.82
2020	2,517	2,249	4,766	+6.69

Source: https://www.eoiparis.gov.in/page/india-france-economic-and-commercial-relations-brief/#:~:text=Bilateral%20Mechanisms%20to%20promote%20Trade,alternately%20in%20Delhi%20and%20Paris.

Table 3. France exports to India in different areas

France Exports to India	Values in USD	Year
Aircraft, spacecraft	2.31 billion	2021
Electrical, electronic equipment	1.35 billion	2021
Machinery, nuclear reactors, boilers	800.69 million	2021
Optical, technical, medical apparatus	474.10 million	2021
Organic chemicals	264.12 million	2021
Plastics	232.16 million	2021
Pharmaceutical products	190.96 million	2021

Source:https://tradingeconomics.com/france/exports/india#:~:text=France%20Exports%20to%20India%20was,COMTRADE%20database%20on%20international%20trade.

Table 4 shows that trade-in services have been increasing positively. India's exports to France and imports from France are in a better position than in earlier fiscal years. In fiscal year 2020, India exported USD 4.56 billion to France. France received Indian exports in the areas of refined petroleum (USD 415 million), packaged medicaments (USD 229 million), and aircraft parts (USD 109 million). Since 1995, India’s exports to France have increased at an annualized rate of 6.08 per cent which amounted to USD 1.04 billion in 1995 and reached USD 4.56 billion in 2020. In 2020, India also received exports worth USD 4.79 billion. The various products exported by France to India, such as planes, helicopters, and spacecraft worth USD 1.12 billion, gas turbines worth USD 285 million, and broadcasting accessories worth USD 200 million. France’s exports to India in 1995 were recorded at an annualized rate of 6.27 per cent growth rate of USD 1.05 billion. In 2020, it increased to USD 4.79 billion. India and France’s bilateral partnership touched on a new era of strategic partnership, and both countries celebrated 25 years of strategic partnership (OEC World, 2022). Table 5 shows that the French FDI has also been growing and strengthening the partnership between the two countries. Thus, India and France deepening their bilateral partnership in the IPR. Table 6 highlights India’s export and import to France, there is appropriate trade balances has been existing between India and France.

Table 4. India and France trade in services in 2020 (Euro in Million)

Number	Major Categories of Services	Indian Exports to France	Indian Imports from France
1.	Manufacturing services supplied by physical inputs held by third parties	103	58
2.	Maintenance & repair services	58	225
3.	Transport	256	508
4.	Travel	65	56
5.	Building & public works	3	5
6.	Pension & insurance services	12	135
7.	Financial services	227	32
8.	Commission for use of intellectual property	61	107
9.	Telecommunication, computer & information services	729	167
10.	Other services to business	985	950
11.	Cultural, leisure & personal services	19	7
12.	Good & services of public administration	0	0
13.	Other services (not included elsewhere)	0	0
	Total	2,517	2,249

Source:https://tradingeconomics.com/france/exports/india#:~:text=France%20Exports%20to%20India%20was,COMTRADE%20database%20on%20international%20trade.

Table 5. FDI equity inflows from France

Fiscal Year (April to March)	Foreign Direct Investment Inflows from France to India
	INR Crores	USD Million	Euro Million	Year of Year Changes
2000–01	455	104	92	N.A.
2001–02	488	108	95	+3.5
2002–03	533	111	98	+3.3
2003–04	176	38	33	−65.6
2004–05	536	117	104	+206.7
2005–06	82	18	16	−84.2
2006–07	527	117	103	+533.6
2007–08	582	145	128	+23.7
2008–09	2,098	466	412	+221.4
2009–10	1,436	302	267	−35.1
2010–11	3,348	734	649	+142.6
2011–12	3,110	662	586	−9.7
2012–13	3,487	646	571	−2.4
2013–14	1,841	305	270	−52.7
2014–15	3,881	634	587	+117.42
2015–16	3,937	598	544	−7.32
2016–17	4,112	614	574	+5.51
2017–18	3,297	511	414	−27.87
2018–19	2,890	406	361	−12.80
2019–20	13,686	1,896	1,730	+379.22
2020–21	9,641	1,291	1,138	−34.21
2021–22	2,507	336	302	−73.46
Cumulative Inflows (April to June 2022)	63,792	10,313	9,290	—–

Source: https://www.eoiparis.gov.in/page/india-france-economic-and-commercial-relations-brief/

Table 6. India’s exports and imports to France

Year	2017–2018	2018–2019	2019–2020	2020–2021	2021–2022
Export	4,900.27	5,232.57	5,097.81	4,782.18	6,640.91
Growth (%)	NA	6.78	−2.58	−6.19	38.87
India’s Total Export	303,526.16	330,078.09	313,361.04	291.808.48	422,004.40
Growth (%)	NA	8.75	−5.06	−6.19	38.87
Share (%)	1.61	1.59	1.63	1.64	1.57
Import	6,524.16	6,665.67	6,168.82	4,343.22	5,782.10
Growth (%)	NA	2.17	−7.45	−29.59	33.13
India’s Total Import	465,580.99	514,078.42	474,709.28	394,435.88	613,052.05
Growth (%)	NA	10.42	−7.66	−16.91	55.43
Share (%)	1.40	1.30	1.30	1.10	0.94
Total Trade	11,424.43	11,898.24	11,266.63	9,125.40	12,423.01
Growth (%)	NA	4.15	−5.31	−19.01	36.14
India’s Total Trade	769,107.15	844,156.51	788,070.32	686,244.36	1,035,056.45
Growth (%)	NA	9.76	−6.64	−12.92	50.83
Share (%)	1.49	1.41	1.43	1.33	1.20
Trade Balance	-1,623.89	-1,433.10	-1,071.00	438.96	858.81
India’s Trade Balance	-162,054.83	184,000.33	-161,348.24	-102,627.40	-191,047.65

Source: https://indbiz.gov.in/country/france/

11. The Indo-French track 1.5 dialogue

India and France started multiple cooperations through track 1.5 dialogue in 2022. This bilateral dialogue included many areas, such as innovation, sustainability, and multilateral cooperation, as a three-year initiative. Both countries’ think tanks, government officials, and business leaders supported bilateral economic, trade, and innovation in the context of the track 1.5 dialogue. The Gateway House, Mumbai, and the Institut français des relations internationales (Ifri), Paris jointly initiating bilateral cooperation to strengthen India- France’s strategic partnership. India and France maintain stronger ties to cement bilateral cooperation and build a strong foundation to cooperate for collective values and a common goal. Both sides are given full priority for sustainability, energy, digital cooperation, the blue economy, and the exploration of the Indo-Pacific region. This dialogue aims to promote innovation and navigate evolving governance issues in the context of accelerating bilateral and multilateral cooperation to achieve a common goal (Gateway House & Ifri, 2022).

12. India and France on renewable energy

India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi and French President Macron launched the International Solar Alliance (ISA) in Paris, France on 30 November 2015. On 6 December 2017, 15 countries joined the ISA Framework Agreement (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, 2022). The ISA became the first global organization to be intergovernmental and headquartered in India. India and France have agreed to work together in the area of renewable energy to boost bilateral partnerships in IPR. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi has designed the Memorandum of Understanding with France in the field of renewable energy partnership between both countries. This became a reality when both sides signed the MoU in January 2021. This agreement is based on the mutual benefit, equality, and reciprocity of both countries, and promotes bilateral cooperation through the promotion of new and renewable energy. It is attached to solar-related technologies, wind, biomass energy, and hydrogen. According to this MoU, both countries will work together on the exchange and training of scientific and technical personnel. Regular exchange of technical information and scientific data-related cooperation. Institutions in both countries will develop mutual joints and several projects related to technology. India and France have set the goal of achieving the ambitious target of 450 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030.

13. Cyber security and cross-border terrorism

“The Government of India (GOI) promised to undertake a ‘massive exercise’ to modernize intelligence agencies, set up a ‘Digital Security Agency’ to deal with cyber warfare, cyber counter-terrorism, and cyber security of national digital assets” (Kolås, 2010). The Indo-Pacific region suffers from the huge problem of cross-border terrorism. Since the 1990s, India has suffered from the same issue. On 14 February 2019, France condemned terrorist attacks on Indian security forces in the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir. The terrorist group Jaish-e-Mohammed claimed and took responsibility for attacking the military conveyed by Pulwama. France has been recognizing India’s sovereignty and legitimacy in ensuring the security of the common people against cross-border terrorism (Ministry of External Affairs, 2022). On the international platform, France supports India and has been criticizing and putting pressure on Pakistan to end terrorist activities in their country. France itself suffered a terrorist attack in Paris, and many cartoonists were killed because of the terrorist act in the country. In 2020, France suffered a terrorist attack as known the “Paris stabbing attack” and the beheading of Samuel Paty in October 2020. India expressed its condolences, and the Indian Prime Minister extended his support to French President Macron. France also urged world communities to punish terrorists and block their channels of financing at the international level (France Diplomacy, 2019).

Counter-terrorism cooperation strengthens the strategic partnership between India and France. It is a key concern in India’s foreign policy agenda, and France backs India in the restriction of terrorist activities at the international level. Terrorists entered Mumbai through the ocean and killed more than 170 innocent people at the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel, Oberoi-Trident, Cafe Leopold, Cama Hospital, Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST), and Nariman House. The 26/11 terrorist attacks in 2008 directly challenged the Indian sovereignty, and the question of maritime security became part of the strategic partnership between India and France (Kolås, 2010). Both countries work immensely on cross-border terrorism in the Indo-Pacific region. The Indo-French dialogue on the strategic agenda strongly criticized all forms of terrorism, including corrosion-border terrorism and the use of terrorist proxies. India and France understand that terrorism can destroy human lives and affect future generations. Both sides agreed on the “No Money for Terror” at an international conference in 2022 hosted by India. New Delhi and Paris work closely to resolve countering radicalization and violent extremism, preventing misuse of the Internet for terrorist acts, and spreading violence against any part of the world (Prime Minister’s Office of India, 2022).

14. Conclusion

India and France celebrated the 25^th anniversary of their strategic partnerships by 2023. These 25 years of strategic partnerships wrote another chapter between India and France. The main areas of partnership have contributed to its excellence, such as space, nuclear energy, defense, maritime security, and cooperation of security issues are key sectors. India has received immense support from France on domestic and international platforms. India’s border issues with China and Pakistan have always created security issues on the northern and eastern sides of the land borders. China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) projects in Pakistan and across the South Asia region created challenges for India in the land, coastal, air, and maritime domains. This has resulted in an increase in India’s defence partnership with France after the successful inclusion of Rafale fighter jets in the Indian Air Force. Defence cooperation paves the way for deeper military-related deals and is fortified by robust security and military dialogues between both countries. The French and Indian armed forces have been participating in joint exercises; for example, both countries’ navies held successful ‘’ Varuna, Garuda (air force), and “Shakti” for the army.

This study highlights that India and France have a positive rate of exports and imports from both sides. There are negligible trade deficit exists between the investments of the two countries. The French companies partner with the Indian firms in the context of the Government of India’s start-up, “Make in India” policy to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) and invite French entrepreneurs to establish their industries and cooperate with Indian companies in different areas. This study reveals that the growing bilateral partnership strengthens India’s position in the IPR. Both sides cementing their deepening partnership and advancing French and Indian approaches in the maritime domain. In the Indian Ocean, India and France are resident powers and have a common interest in the IPR. Both countries’ nations strengthened their cooperation through joint patrolling in the Indian Ocean. There is a common blueprint on both sides of the “Joint Strategic Vision of India-France Cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region.” In space cooperation, both countries have had a rich history of relationships in this area since the 1960s. India received support from French technical assistance for the construction of the ‘Satish Dhawan Space Center (SDSC) (formerly Sriharikota Range—SHAR). In March 2018, during the visit to New Delhi, French President Emmanuel Macron agreed with India in the arena of civilian space and launched the “Joint Vision for Space Cooperation (Embassy of India in France & Principality of Monaco 2023). Strengthening strategic partnerships is a milestone between both countries.

India and France are committed to working together and want to contain China’s expansionism and aggressive behaviour in the IPR. China plays an overwhelming role in the water (maritime domain) and land (reviving the silk route) in the context of the BRI. This has created severe challenges for other global powers as well. The issue of digital cooperation is to share information on cybersecurity and cross-border terrorism. On an international platform, India has been supporting the French position, and both countries want a peaceful settlement of the Russia-Ukraine crisis. This research concludes that the focus area is the IPR, where both countries started a “Parks Partnership” in the maritime zone to strengthen their cooperation in the Indian Ocean. France is the current chair of the Indian Ocean Commission (IOC) and the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS). Both sides cooperate closely and want free and open pacific. Further, this research suggests that the French and Indian synergy was a successful bilateral strategic partnership from 1998 to the present. As the geostrategic and geoeconomic importance of the region increases (IPR), India and France have initiated successful strategic partnerships.

Authors’ contributions

Both authors contributed equally to the writing of each section of the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The author is grateful to the anonymous referees for their comprehensive review of the manuscript and very useful suggestion. It was not possible without support of my brother Simant Shankar Bharti and especially thankful to my friends. We are grateful to the editor and two anonymous referees for their helpful comments and suggestions.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

The authors do not receive any source of financial support.

Notes on contributors

Mukesh Shankar Bharti

Mukesh Shankar Bharti is an independent research scholar with a research background in foreign policy analysis and social science research. The author holds a PhD degree in International Relations with a specialization in Central and Eastern Europe. His research area includes democracy, political institutions, European Union, Religious Politics and South Asia.

Mukesh Shankar Bharti His research background in foreign policy analysis, European Union and Central and Eastern Europe (CEE). The author holds a PhD degree in International Relations with a specialization in Central and Eastern Europe. His research area includes political economy, democracy, political institutions, European Union, the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the Indo-Pacific.

Akshithaa Singh

Akshithaa Singh is a research scholar with a keen interest in European studies, foreign policy and the Indo-Pacific Region. She has a Master's degree in International Relations from the Amity Institute of International Studies, Amity University, she has always been passionate about exploring the intersection of foreign policy, regionalism and strategic integration.