A gender differential analysis of determinants of pesticide application in cocoa system farming of Ghana

Abstract

Achieving inclusivity requires a critical focus on gender responsiveness and holistic growth in the cocoa industry. Conducting a gender-differentiated analysis is essential in determining men and women cocoa farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, practices and aspirations, therefore, it is crucial to develop policies that are sensitive to gender considerations. The study presents useful information on this subject from Ghana for stakeholders in the cocoa sector. A multi-stage sampling technique was used. A total of 182 male and 182 female farmers from 10 towns were interviewed in 2022. The binary and ordered logit models were applied. Women cocoa farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, practices and aspirations were significantly influenced by age, farming experience, premium access, extension contacts as well as education while the knowledge, attitudes, practices and aspirations of male cocoa farmers were influenced by membership in cooperatives, participation in training programmes and years of farming. The main conclusion of the paper is that the cooperative system among cocoa farmers should be enhanced to become an avenue for training farmers to increase their knowledge, attitudes, practices, and aspirations. Extension contact needs to be increased to develop farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, practices, and aspirational capacity on pesticide usage. The study’s implications underscore the importance of developing and implementing gender-responsive pesticide application policies in the cocoa sector. Policymakers need to consider the unique needs and challenges faced by both male and female cocoa farmers to ensure inclusivity and sustainable growth in the industry. By recognizing the significant influence of gender-specific factors on farmers’ experiences and outcomes, the research contributes to a deeper understanding of the complexities involved in achieving inclusivity in agriculture.

Keywords:

• cocoa value chain
• cooperatives
• gender-sensitive
• stakeholders
• training programmes

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

The paper focuses on the cocoa industry in Ghana and the importance of gender-responsive policies in achieving inclusivity and sustainable growth. It presents findings from a study that interviewed male and female cocoa farmers to understand their knowledge, attitudes, practices, and aspirations related to pesticide application. The study found that factors influencing women farmers’ pesticide knowledge and practices include age, farming experience, premium access, extension contacts, and education. For male farmers, factors influencing their pesticide knowledge and practices include membership in cooperatives, participation in training programs, and years of farming. The paper suggests enhancing the cooperative system among cocoa farmers for training and increasing extension contact to develop farmers’ knowledge and practices on pesticide usage. The study highlights the need for gender-responsive pesticide application policies and considers the unique needs and challenges faced by both male and female cocoa farmers for inclusive and sustainable growth in the industry.

1. Introduction

Cocoa holds significant importance as a contributor to Ghana’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), playing a pivotal role in generating foreign exchange and offering employment opportunities to numerous Ghanaians. For instance, in 2013, this sector not only contributed GH¢ 1.963 billion, equivalent to about 2.23% of Ghana’s GDP, but it also provided jobs for around 794,129 farming households (Ghana Statistical Service GSS, 2014). On the global stage of cocoa production, Ghana maintains its reputation as the second-largest producer in Africa and the world, accounting for approximately 27% and 20% of the cocoa supply, respectively (International Cocoa Organization ICCO, 2017). Furthermore, Ghana has established a premium price in the international market due to its strong reputation for delivering top-quality cocoa beans. Although cocoa holds significant economic significance, its production in Ghana faces considerable threats from insect pests and diseases. This predicament has led to a decline in cocoa production, thereby adversely affecting the Ghanaian economy (Denkyirah et al., 2016).

To enhance cocoa productivity, farmers have embraced the utilization of pesticides to manage pests and diseases, thereby increasing yields and upholding quality. Even though these pesticides are noxious and endanger farmers’ lives, their use among cocoa producers in Ghana is still on the rise (Denkyirah et al., 2016). Owing to the exorbitant bulk of pesticide use, individual vulnerability is unavoidable. Within Ghana’s cocoa industry, the application of pesticides has raised serious concerns regarding the presence of pesticide residues in cocoa beans, water and soils along with potential human exposure factors. They can cause problems such as the outbreak of secondary pests and harm to non-target species e.g., pollinators including bats, butterflies, bees, wasps, moths, beetles and birds (Adejumo et al., 2014; Adeogun & Agbongiarhuoyi, 2006). In developing countries like Ghana, the repercussions of these concerns have often been severe due to farmers’ tendency to disregard approved pesticides and neglect recommended application practices stipulated by governmental authorities. Regrettably, farmers frequently misuse pesticides by applying them haphazardly, often ignoring safety measures and regulatory guidelines for chemical use (Hashemi et al., 2012; Antwi-Agyakwa et al., 2015). This practice not only poses a substantial public health risk on a global scale but also results in fatalities (Bertolote et al., 2006). In developing countries, a significant number of individuals die each year as a result of mishandling pesticides (Konradsen, 2007). Globally, there has been a noticeable rise in the occurrence of pesticide poisoning, affecting an estimated 1–41 million individuals who experience health repercussions due to pesticide exposure each year (PAN International, 2007). As outlined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2009, a minimum of 300,000 individuals succumb to pesticide poisoning annually, with 99% of these fatalities occurring in low and middle-income nations of which Ghana is included. Pesticide exposure has been associated with long-term impacts of low sperm count in males, an upsurge in testicular cancer, birth defects, immune and reproductive system malfunctions, dermatitis, endocrine disruptions, cancer occurrences, alterations in behaviour, immunotoxicity, developmental and neurobehavioral disorders (Cocco et al., 2013; Gill & Garg, 2014; PAN International, 2007). Furthermore, there have been accounts of immediate impacts such as bodily discomfort, headaches, skin and eye irritation, dizziness, feelings of nausea, compromised vision and respiratory issues (Gill & Garg, 2014; Pan-Germany, 2012). Moreover, the exposure of farmers to pesticides has been linked to serious health consequences, including birth defects and cancer, leading to numerous fatalities, particularly in developing countries (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, 2014).

These undesiring health outcomes could be linked to a lack of in-depth knowledge in relation to the perils of pesticide vulnerability and a detrimental attitude towards well-being, specifically improper use and practices of pesticide application (Jin et al., 2017). The lack of information regarding pesticide hazards, farmers’ attitudes and perceptions towards the risks of pesticide exposure, and a deficiency in education and knowledge about safe practices in pesticide use, including handling, storage, and disposal, contribute to an increased risk of pesticide exposure for farmers (Atreya et al., 2012; Jallow et al., 2017; Karunamoorthi et al., 2012; Matthews, 2008). Farmers who have obtained higher levels of education are more likely to have improved access to information and possess a greater understanding of the risks linked to pesticide use, along with strategies to minimize exposure. In contrast, farmers with lower educational attainment may face challenges in comprehending the hazard warnings on pesticide labels, understanding measures to prevent exposure, and following recommended safety and application guidelines. This discrepancy highlights the impact of illiteracy and a lack of awareness regarding the hazardous nature of pesticides as a significant barrier that can hinder farmers’ adoption of self-protective behaviours, particularly concerning the utilization of PPE (Blanco-Muñoz & Lacasaña, 2011; Damalas & Hashemi, 2010). Understanding the difficulties and finding targets and subjects for treatments that may address challenges in pesticide application involves knowledge surveys to discover knowledge gaps, behavioural patterns, and commonly held beliefs (Bhandari, 2021).

A study of farmers’ knowledge conducted by Atreya et al. (2012) revealed that a great level of knowledge was strongly associated with education and experience. Atreya (2007) found a favourable association between knowledge, perception and PPE use. Bagheri et al. (2019) showed that the attitude and perceived behavioural norms of farmers were highly dependent on farmers’ knowledge towards pesticide application. They further stated that subjective norms also play a vital role in changing the perceived behaviour and attitude of farmers towards pesticide use. The prevalence of illiteracy makes it difficult for farmers to comprehend and adhere to pesticide instructions and safety recommendations (Bagheri et al., 2018). Hence there is a need to inform farmers about the effect of poor attitudes and inappropriate use of pesticides on their farming activities (Karisson, 2004). To effectively address the risks associated with pesticide use in society, it is crucial to recognize that human behaviour is strongly influenced by attitudes and beliefs. Without a transformation of these beliefs and their substitution with suitable behaviours, there can be no guarantee of mitigating the risk factors related to pesticide usage (Ghobadi-Aliabadi et al., 2016). Previous research by Clarke et al. (1997), Okonya et al. (2019) and Jin et al. (2017) have shown that pesticide educational programmes mostly produce the desired attitude and appropriate use of agricultural pesticides by farm workers in developing countries. However, Hosseini et al. (2011) reported a very weak awareness of safety practices and the usage of personal protection. Consequently, it becomes essential to study the behaviour of farmers, who are at the forefront of working with these hazardous substances, to implement necessary measures.

Previous research on pesticides has predominantly examined their toxicity, impact on human health and the environment, factors influencing farmers’ excessive pesticide use, decision-making processes regarding pesticide application and frequency, pesticide handling and associated health risks, as well as the attitudes and practices of pesticide usage and intentions to use pesticides (Agmas et al., 2020; Bagheri et al., 2018, 2019; Denkyirah et al., 2016; Hajjar, 2012; Jallow et al., 2017; Saeed et al., 2005). Gender-inclusive studies on pesticide use reveal disparities in attitudes, knowledge and practices between men and women (Atreya, 2007; Christie et al., 2015; Pouratashi & Irvani, 2012). These distinctions stem from the examination of gender roles and responsibilities in agriculture within a particular cultural setting. Additionally, differences in access to resources, including information, contribute to these variations (Erbaugh et al., 2002). The gender roles associated with pesticide management exhibit variation, with women typically possessing lesser awareness of the detrimental effects of pesticides and reduced access to training (Atreya, 2007; Christie et al., 2015; Cole et al., 2011). This paper, therefore, focuses on cocoa farmers and their knowledge, attitudes, practices, and aspirations related to pesticide application. Gaining an understanding of cocoa farmers’ knowledge regarding pesticides and their safety practices is of utmost importance. This knowledge will not only assist in identifying potential exposure risks and knowledge deficiencies but also provide valuable insights for the development of educational initiatives and policy recommendations. These recommendations aim to prevent or mitigate the environmental and health hazards linked with pesticide use. Hence, the objective of this study is to assess the factors that influence male and female cocoa farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, practices, and aspirations regarding pesticide application in Ghana. Specifically, the study (i) assesses cocoa farmers’ knowledge, attitude, practice and aspiration regarding the use of pesticides and (ii) evaluates the determinants of cocoa farmers’ knowledge, attitude, practice and aspirations related to pesticide use. The study adds to the existing knowledge base by analyzing the issue from a gender perspective and using four outcome variables that are absent from previous studies, thus, knowledge, attitude, practices and aspirations.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study area and data collection

The study area selected for this research is the West Akim Municipality, situated in the Eastern Region. The West Akim Municipality shares borders with several neighbouring regions, including Kwaebibrem Municipal to the north, Birim South District to the west, Agona West Municipal, Effutu Municipal and Ga East Municipal to the south, and Suhum and Nsawam Adoagyiri Municipals to the east. As per the 2021 population and housing census, the municipality has a population of 120,145 individuals, with 58,268 males and 61,877 females. Subsistence agriculture is the primary occupation, engaging 52.1% of the total labour force. The basic trend of the rainy season is that it peaks between July and September, followed by the dry season, which lasts primarily from December through to February (https://ghanadistricts.com/Home/District/102).

The study used the cross-sectional descriptive approach. The population for this research were male and female cocoa farmers in the municipality. The study utilized a multi-stage sampling technique to select 364 respondents i.e., 182 male and 182 female cocoa farmers. Relative to the one-stage sampling technique, multi-stage sampling is efficient and also allows for flexibility in the sampling process. The first stage involved randomly selecting West Akim Municipality. The second stage saw the purposive selection of 10 communities (Nyamebekyere, Nyamenti Small London, Atta ne Atta, Owusiw, Asuokaw, Oworakessim, Nkorkor, Odumase and Ekoso) within the municipality based on the predominance of cocoa farmers in these communities. In each community, the population was divided into two strata i.e., men and women. The third stage involved the selection of men and women cocoa farmers through the simple random sampling technique from each of the strata proportional to its size in the population. For this study, the researchers utilized primary data acquired from respondents through face-to-face interviews using close-ended questionnaires. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyse the data. To avoid potential biases, the questions asked during the interviews were framed in a way that was impartial and not judgmental. To make sure that the study wasn’t influenced by any one culture, the researchers stayed open to different ideas and treated the farmers’ cultural viewpoints with respect.

In the study area, three field assistants who were fluent in the local dialect (Asante Twi) were chosen to support data collection. These field assistants were selected based on their prior experience, ensuring their suitability for the task. Before commencing the actual data collection, a comprehensive discussion about the survey questionnaire was held with each field assistant to ensure their understanding and proficiency in administering the instrument. The questions’ reliability was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha test with the help of SPSS. The obtained value was 0.72, indicating that the questionnaire was reliable. To assess the validity of the data collection instrument, each field assistant conducted a pilot test by administering the questionnaire to three male and three female cocoa farmers. This pilot test served as a trial run to identify any potential issues or ambiguities in the questionnaire and allowed for necessary adjustments to be made before the official data collection. Upon successful completion of the pilot testing and refinement of the questionnaire, the field assistants and the researchers proceeded with the actual data collection from May to July 2022. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. The researchers ensured that their privacy and confidentiality were protected throughout the data collection process.

2.2. Analytical framework

The binary logit model was used in this study to determine the factors that influence the knowledge of cocoa farmers about pesticide usage. The decision to utilize the binary logit model stemmed from two primary reasons. Firstly, this model guarantees the generation of choice probabilities within the range of 0 and 1, providing an advantage over the linear probability model. Secondly, it offers simpler and more straightforward calculations compared to the probit model (Jatto et al., 2012). Logistic regression is favoured over discriminant analysis and multiple regression due to its mathematical flexibility, user-friendly distribution, and reduced reliance on assumptions. Unlike discriminant analysis, logistic regression does not mandate that the independent variables follow a normal distribution, have a linear relationship, or possess equal variance inside each group (Mulugeta, 2021). In comparison to its counterpart, the probit model, the logistic model exhibits reduced sensitivity to outliers and is simpler to rectify for bias. When dealing with scenarios involving categorical independent variables or a combination of continuous and categorical variables, logistic analysis is favoured over discriminant analysis. The assumptions necessary for statistical tests in logistic regression are notably less restrictive than those required for ordinary least squares regression (Agresti, 2010). The model is used when the dependent variable takes the form of two categories and helps in determining the category in which an observation with a specific characteristic will fall. Following Ankuyi et al. (2022), knowledge was measured as a binary variable, thus, knowledge = 1, no knowledge = 0.

Attitude, practices and aspiration were measured in three levels, thus, attitude [1=Negative (low), 2=Neutral (moderate), 3=positive (high)]; practice [(1=Never (low), 2=Sometimes (moderate), 3=Always (high)]; and aspiration [(1=Disagree (low), 2=Neutral (moderate), 3=Agree (high)] (Ankuyi et al., 2022). Given that the dependent variables i.e., attitude, practices and aspiration are in categorical and ordered format, the multinomial probit or logit models would not adequately address the inherent ordinal structure of these dependent variables (Green, 2000). Therefore, the most suitable approach for econometric estimation in this context is the use of ordinal logistic regression. The ordinal logit model has gained substantial use in the analysis of responses that are ranked (Greene & Hensher, 2009). To examine the factors influencing the attitude, practice, and aspirations of male and female cocoa farmers regarding pesticide usage, an ordered logistic regression was employed. The utilization of ordinal regression enables the modelling of the relationship between a polytomous ordinal response and a collection of predictors, encompassing both factors and covariates. For accessing the impact of exogenous variables on an ordered endogenous variable the ordered logit approach is mostly employed (Train, 2009). Table 1 presents the independent variables used in the model. Their selection was guided by literature (Ankuyi et al., 2022; Bagheri et al., 2019; Hosseini et al., 2011; Jallow et al., 2017; Jin et al., 2017; Muleme et al., 2017; Okonya et al., 2019; Rostami et al., 2019). The empirical model for the regression analysis is expressed below;

(1) $Yi={\beta }_0+AGE+SEX+AGFR+HHSIZE+FRE+FRSIZE+MSU+EDU+FBO+ACC+TRN+u_i$(1)

Table 1. Explanatory variable for binary/ordered logit model

VAR	Variable	Unit of measurement	A priori Exp.
Independent Variables
AGE	Age of farmer	Measured in years	±
SEX	Sex	Sex of farmer(0 = female, 1 = male)	±
AGFR	Age of cocoa farm	Number of years the farm has been in existence.	+
HHSIZE	Household size	Number of persons in the household	±
FRE	Farming experience	Measured in years	±
FRSIZ	Size of cocoa farm	Measured in acres	+
MS	Marital status	Marriage (0 = single, 1 = married)	±
EDU	Educational level	Number of years spent in school	±
EXT	Extension contacts	Number of times	+
FBO	Participation in a farmer-based organization	Dummy (0 = no, 1=yes)	+
REL	Religion	Dummy (0 = Not Christian, 1=Christian)
ACC	Access to credit	Dummy (0 = no access, 1 = access)	±
TRN	Participation in training on pesticide application	Dummy (0 = no, 1=yes)	+
Dependent Variables
KN	Knowledge	Dummy (0 = no knowledge, 1=knowledge)
AT	Attitude	Categorical (low-1, moderate-2, high-3)
SK	Skills	Categorical (low-1, moderate-2, high-3)
AS	Aspirations	Categorical (low-1, moderate-2, high-3)

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Socio-economic characteristics of farmers

From Table 2, the mean age of the respondents is 48 years with 18 years of cocoa farming experience. Although, on average, a male farmer (49 years old) is a year older than a female farmer (48 years old), they are both younger than the ages of cocoa farmers found by Wongnaa et al. (2022). However, male cocoa farmers were 3 years more experienced than female farmers as the latter has 16 years of farming experience while the former has 19. Overall, we can conclude that both male and female farmers are experienced in cocoa farming since they have more than a decade of experience. Moreover, both male and female cocoa farmers have an average household size of six (6) each. Male cocoa farmers have an average of 9 years of formal education while the females have an average of 6 years of formal education. The average age of cocoa farms is 18 and 16 years for male and female respondents respectively. Both male and female cocoa farmers receive an average of 6.32 and 5.69 (respectively) extension visits in a month.

Table 2. Socioeconomic characteristics of cocoa farmers

Variable	Male (n=182)		Female (n=182)
	Mean	Std. Dev.	Mean	Std. Dev.
Age of farmer	48.81	11.05	47.9	11.83
Household size	6.42	2.58	6.07	2.01
Years of farming	19.08	9.3	16.25	8.1
Age of cocoa farm	18.01	8.04	15.67	6.9
Size of cocoa farm	6.73	4.43	5.04	3.42
Extension Contacts	6.32	3.47	5.69	2.93
Years of education	9.13	2.67	6.24	4.20
Marital status	Freq.	Percent	Freq.	Percent
Others	22	12.1	41	22.54
Married	160	87.91	141	77.47
Access to credit	Freq.	Percent	Freq.	Percent
No	103	56.59	89	48.9
Yes	79	43.41	93	51.1
Religion	Freq.	Percent	Freq.	Percent
Others (Moslems, Traditionalists, etc.)	3	1.65	8	4.4
Christian	179	98.35	174	95.6
Received training on pesticide application	Freq.	Percent	Freq.	Percent
No	10	5.49	10	5.49
Yes	172	94.51	172	94.51
Membership in farmers association	Freq.	Percent	Freq.	Percent
No	33	18.13	32	17.58
Yes	149	81.87	150	82.42
Certification scheme	Freq.	Percent	Freq.	Percent
No	98	53.85	103	56.59
Yes	84	46.15	79	43.41
Access to premium in the last cocoa season	Freq.	Percent	Freq.	Percent
No	117	64.29	113	62.09
Yes	65	35.71	69	37.91
Outcome Variables
Knowledge of cocoa farmers	Male (n=182)		Female (n=182)
	Freq.	Percent	Freq.	Percent
Knowledge	33	18.13	82	45.05
No knowledge	149	81.87	100	54.95
Attitude
Low	50	27.47	20	10.99
Moderate	79	43.41	73	40.11
High	53	29.12	89	48.9
Practices
Low	72	39.56	10	5.49
Knowledge of cocoa farmers	Male (n=182)		Female (n=182)
	Freq.	Percent	Freq.	Percent
Moderate	10	5.49	120	65.93
High	100	54.94	52	28.57
Aspirations
Low	54	29.67	60	23.63
Moderate	58	31.87	79	43.41
High	70	38.46	43	32.96

Source: Field Survey (2022).

The majority of the male (87.91%) and female (77.47%) cocoa farmers interviewed were married. Access to credit was higher among female farmers (51.1%) than males (43.41%). The majority of the male (98.35%) and female (95.6%) cocoa farmers interviewed were Christians. Both male and female cocoa farmers have received training in pesticide application at an equal rate of 94.51% each. With regards to farmer associations, membership was higher among female cocoa farmers (82.42%) than males (81.87%). More males (46.15%) were part of a certification scheme compared to females (43.41%). More female farmers (37.91%) received price premiums in the previous cocoa season than male farmers (35.71%). In terms of knowledge, it could be said that the female cocoa farmers (45.05%) had more knowledge than the male farmers (18.13%). In terms of attitude, female cocoa farmers had a high attitude (48.9%) as compared to males (29.12%). Concerning the level of practice, the males had a high level (54.94%) as compared to the females (28.57%). In terms of aspirations, the male farmers had a high level (38.46%) as compared to the females (32.96%).

3.2. Determinants of male/female cocoa farmers’ knowledge towards pesticide use

Table 3 presents the results of the binary logit regression analysis examining the determinants of male and female cocoa farmers’ knowledge towards pesticide use. For the males, the model’s test statistics indicate that the model is statistically significant (LR chi²(13) = 13.27, p-value = 0.000). The pseudo-R² value of 0.533 suggests that the independent variables in the model explain approximately 53.3% of the variation in male farmers’ knowledge towards pesticide use. The test statistics for the female model indicate that the model is statistically significant (LR chi²(13) = 33.6, p-value = 0.001). The pseudo-R² value of 0.771 suggests that the independent variables in the model explain approximately 77.1% of the variation in female farmers’ knowledge towards pesticide use.

Table 3. Binary logit analysis of the determinants of male and female cocoa farmers’ knowledge towards pesticide use

Variable	Male			Female
	Coef.	Std. Err.	Odds ratio	Coef.	Std. Err.	Odds ratio
Age	0.027*	0.014	0.985	0.022*	0.013	2.969
Marital status	0.276	0.232	0.918	−0.303	0.185	1.101
Household size	−0.011	0.042	1.009	0.015	0.063	0.807
Years of education	0.231**	0.090	3.578	−0.177	0.135	0.892
Cocoa farming experience	−0.026	0.019	7.066	−0.003	0.023	1.830
Age of cocoa farm	0.018	0.016	1.279	−0.003	0.023	0.895
Size of cocoa farm	−0.025	0.026	6.339	0.102***	0.042	2.014
Religion	0.275	0.208	0.787	0.418	0.279	1.134
Number of extension contacts	−0.030	0.034	0.473	0.220***	0.057	3.004
Access to premium	−0.134	0.308	0.665	0.537	0.531	2.312
Producing under a certification scheme	0.211	0.307	1.491	−0.235	0.552	1.671
Membership in cocoa farmers’ organization	0.620*	0.286	2.059	0.266	0.394	4.102
Participation in training programme	0.535***	0.271	1.006	0.648	0.672	2.335
_cons	−1.242	0.764	0.804	−0.724	1.041	0.986
Observations	182			182
LR chi^2(13)	13.27			33.6
Prob > chi^2	0.000			0.001
Pseudo R^2	0.533			0.771
Log-likelihood	−117.932			−81.518

Source: Field Survey, (2022). Note: ***p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.10.

For the male farmers, the following variables are statistically significant at a 10% significance level or better: Age (p < 10%): The odds ratio for the age of the male farmer is 0.985 implying that as the age of the male farmers increases, the odds of knowing pesticide use increases. This means that older farmers tend to be more knowledgeable about pesticide use compared to younger farmers. It suggests that there might be generational differences in awareness and understanding of pesticide use. The result is consistent with the findings of Wang et al. (2017) who reported that an increase in the age of farmers has an impact on their knowledge. Years of education (p < 5%): For every 1 unit increase in education (a year), the odds in favour of knowledge increase by a factor of 3.578. It implies that each additional year of education is associated with a four times increase in the likelihood of knowing pesticide use. The positive coefficient suggests that higher levels of education are linked to a greater probability of knowing about pesticide use. This aligns with the general expectation that education equips individuals with information and critical thinking skills, which can contribute to a better understanding of complex topics such as pesticide usage. This insight could guide educational initiatives and interventions aimed at improving awareness of pesticide use. Focusing on improving educational opportunities in communities might lead to increased knowledge about safe and effective pesticide practices. This supports the findings of Ankuyi et al. (2022) who said that education contributes to farmers’ knowledge. Membership in cocoa farmers’ organizations (p < 10%): For male farmers who are members of a cooperative organization, the odds in favour of knowledge increase by a factor of 2.059. This suggests that when a male farmer joins a cooperative organization, there is a twofold increase in their knowledge regarding pesticide use. It implies that being part of a farmer cooperative organization has a significant impact on the likelihood of knowing pesticide use. This could be attributed to the educational and information-sharing opportunities often provided by farmer organizations. Cocoa farmers’ organizations provide a platform for farmers to interact and exchange knowledge with fellow farmers. Through regular meetings, workshops, and training programmes organized by these organizations, farmers have the opportunity to learn about various agricultural practices, including pesticide use. Sharing experiences and best practices within the organization can enhance their understanding of effective pesticide use and safety measures. This insight underscores the importance of farmer organizations in promoting knowledge dissemination and skill enhancement related to pesticide use. Encouraging male farmers to join such organizations could potentially lead to better pesticide practices, improved safety measures, and overall informed decision-making in agricultural activities. Participation in a training programme (p < 1%): For male farmers who participate in training programmes, the odds in favour of knowledge increase by a factor of 1.006. This suggests that when a male farmer participates in a training programme, there is an increase in the likelihood of acquiring knowledge. The finding shows the positive impact of training programmes on pesticide knowledge among male farmers. When male farmers participate in these programmes, they experience a substantial boost in their understanding of pesticide usage. This could be attributed to the educational content, skill-building exercises, and practical demonstrations typically provided during these training sessions. This observation emphasizes the importance of investing in training programmes for male farmers. By offering relevant and effective training opportunities, agricultural authorities and organizations can contribute to safer and more informed pesticide practices among male farmers. However, it is crucial to consider factors like the quality of training, the topics covered, and the delivery methods. These can all influence the effectiveness of training programmes in enhancing pesticide knowledge. This supports the findings of Uribe-Leitz and Ruf (2019) who reported training has an impact on the knowledge of farmers.

For female farmers, the significant determinants of knowledge towards pesticide use are as follows: Age (p < 10%): The odds ratio for the age of the female farmer is 2.969 implying that as the age of the female farmers increases, the odds of knowing pesticide use increases. This finding implies that as age increases, female farmers’ knowledge about pesticide use also increases in three folds. In other words, older female farmers tend to be more knowledgeable about pesticide use compared to their younger counterparts. The finding highlights the potential for intergenerational knowledge transfer, where older farmers could play a role in educating and mentoring younger generations of farmers. This is consistent with the findings of Das et al. (2019) who reported that an increase in the age of farmers has an impact on their knowledge. Size of cocoa farms (p < 1%): The odds ratio for the size of cocoa farms is 2.014 implying that as the farm size of the female farmers increases, the odds of knowing pesticide use increases. This suggests that an increase in cocoa farm size will lead to a 2-time increase in farmers’ knowledge about pesticide use. Larger cocoa farms are more likely to face greater pest pressure due to increased crop area. Female farmers managing these farms recognize the importance of effective pest management to ensure a healthy and productive cocoa crop. They are motivated to acquire knowledge about pesticide use as part of their efforts to protect their investment and maximize yields. This motivation drives them to seek out information and develop a deeper understanding of pesticide-related practices. This information could guide extension services and education efforts targeted towards larger-scale farmers. Number of extension contacts (p < 1%): The odds ratio for the number of extension contacts is 3.004 implying that as the number of extension contacts increases, the odds of knowing pesticide use increases. This finding implies that as the number of extension contacts increases, female farmers’ knowledge about pesticide use also increases by three folds. This implies that the more interactions female farmers have with extension professionals, the higher they will gain information and understanding about pesticide use practices. This observation holds implications for the design and implementation of agricultural extension programmes. Increasing the frequency and accessibility of extension services could lead to improved knowledge dissemination, ultimately resulting in safer and more effective pesticide practices among female farmers. This agrees with the findings of Ankuyi et al. (2022) who reported frequent extension contact has an impact on the knowledge of farmers.

3.3. Determinants of the attitude of male/female cocoa farmers towards pesticide usage

Table 4 presents the regression results of an ordered logit model used to analyze the determinants of the attitude of male and female cocoa farmers towards pesticide usage. The test statistics for the male model indicate that the model is significant (LR chi²(13) = 19.16, p-value = 0.010). The pseudo-R² value of 0.418 suggests that the independent variables in the model explain approximately 41.8% of the variation in male farmers’ attitudes towards pesticide usage. The test statistics for the female model indicate that the model is statistically significant (LR chi²(13) = 67.06, p-value = 0.000). The pseudo-R² value of 0.758 suggests that the independent variables in the model explain approximately 75.8% of the variation in female farmers’ attitudes towards pesticide usage.

Table 4. Ordered logit analysis on the determinants of the attitude of male and female cocoa farmers towards pesticide usage

Variable	Male			Female
	Coef.	Std. Err.	Odds ratio	Coef.	Std. Err.	Odds ratio
Age	0.075	0.114	2.513	−0.158	0.106	1.137
Marital status	−0.658	1.984	1.740	4.968**	2.180	2.023
Household size	−0.592*	0.346	0.987	0.622	0.445	0.962
Years of education	0.688	0.718	2.338	0.900	0.769	3.242
Cocoa farming experience	0.202	0.178	4.255	0.066	0.186	2.723
Age of cocoa farm	0.060	0.093	3.514	−0.148	0.225	3.510
Size of cocoa farm	0.311	0.247	0.907	0.160	0.337	0.935
Religion	0.385	1.418	0.786	6.314**	3.277	1.054
Number of extension contacts	0.209**	0.314	2.031	−0.306	0.304	2.314
Access to premium	0.978	1.971	1.620	20.930	2849.511	0.994
Producing under a certification scheme	−0.314	1.563	2.841	2.021	5.940	0.734
Membership in cocoa farmers’ organization	1.550	1.548	0.317	0.729	2.056	0.723
Participation in training programme	0.066	1.908	1.972	10.755***	4.196	1.010
/cut1	3.446	5.056	3.446	13.314	7.722	13.314
/cut2	2.530	4.260	2.530	12.412	5.124	12.412
Observations	182			182
LR chi^2(13)	19.16			67.06
Prob > chi^2	0.010			0.000
Pseudo R^2	0.418			0.758
Log-likelihood	−13.324			−10.697

Source: Field Survey, (2022). Note: ***p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.10.

For the male farmers, the following variables are statistically significant at a 5% significance level or better: Household Size (10%): The result of the odds ratio in favour of male farmers’ attitude towards pesticide use decreases by 0.987 as their household size increases by one member. This implies that male farmers with larger household sizes are likely to have a lower attitude towards pesticide use. Thus, larger household sizes are associated with a reduced inclination toward positive attitudes regarding pesticide use. Larger households often have more members dependent on farming for their livelihoods. In such cases, male farmers may be more cautious about the economic risks associated with pesticide usage. They might be concerned about the potential costs of purchasing pesticides and the impact on the overall household budget. This economic concern can lead to a more negative attitude towards pesticide usage, as they prioritize cost-saving measures and seek alternative pest management strategies that require less financial investment. Tailoring information about pesticide use to address the concerns of larger households could enhance their effectiveness. Number of Extension Contacts (5%): The odds ratio of 2.031 suggests that as the number of extension contacts rises, the odds of positive attitudes among female farmers regarding pesticide use also increase. Thus, male farmers who have contact with extension are two times more likely to have a positive attitude towards pesticide use. This implies that as male farmers have more extension contacts, their favourable stance on pesticide use becomes more pronounced. Extension contacts provide male farmers with technical support and guidance in pesticide application. Extension agents can assist in calibrating sprayers, ensuring correct mixing and application techniques, and addressing any queries or concerns regarding pesticide usage. This hands-on assistance instils confidence in male farmers, reinforcing their positive attitude towards pesticide usage and their belief in its effectiveness. The positive link between extension contacts and attitudes highlights the importance of investing in extension services. It reinforces the role of these services in promoting sustainable and informed agricultural practices. Tailoring extension services to effectively reach and engage female farmers can contribute to sustainable and positive changes in agricultural attitudes and behaviours.

For the female farmers, the significant determinants of knowledge towards pesticide use are as follows: Marital Status (5%): For female farmers who are married, the odds in favour of attitude with regards to pesticide use increase by a factor of 2.023. This implies that married farmers are two times more likely to have a positive attitude towards pesticide use as compared to their counterparts who are not married. The findings suggest that marital status plays a pivotal role in shaping female farmers’ attitudes toward pesticide use. Married female farmers are more likely to hold and adopt attitudes related to pesticide use compared to their unmarried counterparts. When communicating about pesticide use and its impact, understanding the collective influence of marital status can guide the design of effective outreach strategies. This is in contradiction with the findings of Ankuyi et al. (2022) who found out that married farmers have a negative attitude towards agricultural practices. Religion (5%): For female farmers who are Christians, the odds in favour of attitude with regard to pesticide use increase by a factor of 1.054. The findings indicate that religious identity, specifically being a Christian, could play a role in shaping attitudes toward pesticide use. Thus, female farmers who are Christians are likely to have a positive attitude towards pesticide use as compared to their counterparts who belong to other religions apart from Christianity. Religious beliefs and values can shape individuals’ attitudes towards various aspects of life, including their agricultural practices. Christianity, like many other religions, often emphasizes stewardship and responsibility for the natural world. Some interpretations of Christian teachings may prioritize the well-being and protection of crops as part of one’s duty to care for the land and sustain livelihoods. As a result, Christian female farmers may view pesticide usage as a means to fulfil their responsibility to nurture and protect their crops, leading to a more positive attitude. Participation in Training Programme (1%): For female farmers who participate in training programmes, the odds in favour of attitude increase by a factor of 1.010. This implies that female farmers who participate in training programmes are likely to have a positive attitude towards pesticide use as compared to their counterparts who do not participate in training programmes. The finding indicates that training programmes play a constructive role in shaping the attitudes of female farmers towards pesticide use. Training programmes provide hands-on training and practical demonstrations of pesticide application techniques, safety measures, and appropriate handling procedures. Female farmers who have acquired these skills are more likely to feel confident and capable of using pesticides correctly and safely. This increased competence contributes to a positive attitude towards pesticide usage as they feel equipped to handle pesticides effectively and minimize risks. Training can expose participants to different perspectives and best practices. This expanded viewpoint might lead to reconsideration and subsequent adjustment of attitudes.

3.4. Determinants of the practices of male/female cocoa farmers in pesticide usage

Table 5 presents the regression results of an ordered logit model used to analyze the determinants of male and female cocoa farmers’ practice of pesticide usage. The test statistics for the male model indicate that the model is statistically significant (LR chi²(13) = 66.560, p-value = 0.000). The pseudo-R² value of 0.253 suggests that the independent variables in the model explain approximately 25.3% of the variation in male farmers’ pesticide practices. The test statistics for the female model indicate that the model is statistically significant (LR chi²(13) = 36.94, p-value = 0.000). The pseudo-R² value of 0.151 suggests that the independent variables in the model explain approximately 15.1% of the variation in female farmers’ pesticide practices.

Table 5. Ordered logit analysis on the determinants of the practices of male and female cocoa farmers towards pesticide usage

Practice	Male			Female
	Coef.	Std. Err.	Odds ratio	Coef.	Std. Err.	Odds ratio
Age	0.020**	0.020	1.985	0.016	0.024	1.511
Marital status	0.301	0.288	1.295	−0.445	0.420	1.290
Household size	0.098	0.095	3.300	−0.190***	0.077	0.914
Years of Education	−0.224	0.215	0.998	−0.189	0.158	2.233
Years of farming	−0.045	0.035	2.199	0.093***	0.035	3.009
Age of cocoa farm	0.055	0.037	1.144	0.041	0.031	2.177
Size of cocoa farm	−0.069	0.065	3.290	0.093*	0.049	1.055
Religion	0.643	0.765	2.401	0.126	0.535	0.815
Number of extension contacts	0.153**	0.078	1.051	0.038	0.060	0.728
Access to premium	0.575	0.734	1.433	1.160**	0.559	2.038
Producing under a certification scheme	−1.128***	0.420	1.007	0.097	0.366	1.791
Membership in cocoa farmers’ organization	1.512**	0.669	3.024	−0.174	0.525	1.741
Participation in training programme	4.067***	1.317	3.002	1.480*	0.844	3.080
/cut1	−5.164	1.910	−5.164	−0.833	1.331	−0.833
/cut2	1.483	1.872	1.483	0.732	1.332	0.732
Observations	182			182
LR chi^2(13)	66.560			36.94
Prob > chi^2	0.000			0.000
Pseudo R^2	0.253			0.151
Log-likelihood	−98.049			−103.684

Source: Field Survey, (2022). Note: ***p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.10.

For the male farmers, the following variables are statistically significant at a 5% significance level or better: Age (5%): The odds ratio associated with the age of male farmers is 1.985, indicating that with each unit increase in age, the odds of participating in pesticide use rise by a factor of 1.985. Thus, older male farmers are twice as likely to involve themselves in pesticide use. This suggests that older farmers are inclined to use pesticides extensively. Age often signifies accumulated knowledge about farming practices. Older farmers often possess extensive agricultural experience and might be more familiar with different pesticides, their effectiveness, and appropriate application methods. This could influence their decisions regarding pest management, inclining them towards pesticide use. This contradicts the findings of Perry et al. (2000) that age has a negative impact on adherence to the sustainable practices of farmers. Number of Extension Contacts (5%): The odds ratio of 1.051 suggests that as the number of extension contacts rises, the odds of pesticide use among male farmers also increase. Thus, male farmers who have contact with extension are highly likely to use pesticides. Extension contacts can impart practical skills related to pesticide application and safety, contributing to a higher likelihood of adopting pesticide practices. Again, increased extension contacts could lead to an improved understanding of effective pesticide application methods. This agrees with the findings of Prokopy et al. (2008) and Perry et al. (2000) who reported that extension access has a positive impact practices of farmers. Producing under a Certification Scheme (5%): For male farmers who produce under certification schemes, the odds in favour of pesticide use decrease by a factor of 1.007. This implies that male farmers who produce under a certification scheme are less likely to use pesticides as compared to their counterparts who do produce under a certification scheme. Certification schemes often prioritize environmentally friendly and sustainable agricultural practices. The observed decrease implies that these schemes influence farmers to reduce their reliance on pesticide use. Certification programmes often have strict guidelines for pesticide use. The decrease suggests that farmers under these programmes are adhering to pesticide usage regulations. Membership in Cocoa Farmers’ Organization (5%): For male farmers who are members of cocoa farmer organizations, the odds in favour of pesticide use increase by a factor of 3.024. This implies that male farmers who are members of cocoa farming organizations are three times more likely to use pesticides as compared to their counterparts who are not members of cocoa farming organizations. Farmer organizations guide their members towards practices that meet market demands, which could involve pesticide use to ensure crop quality. Cooperative purchases of pesticides might provide cost advantages to members, influencing increased usage. Participation in training programme (1%): For male farmers who participate in training programmes, the odds in favour of pesticide use increase by a factor of 3.002. This implies that male farmers who participate in training programmes are three times more likely to use pesticides as compared to their counterparts who do not participate in training programmes. Training programmes might provide information about the proper use and benefits of pesticides, making farmers more likely to access and use them. Training programmes might emphasize the benefits of pesticide use, influencing farmers to adopt these practices to improve crop yields.

For the female farmers, the significant determinants of pesticide use are as follows: Household Size (1%): The result of the odds ratio in favour of female farmers’ use of pesticides decreases by 0.914 as their household size increases by one member. This implies that female farmers with larger household sizes are less likely to use pesticides. Thus, larger household sizes are associated with a reduced inclination towards pesticide usage. Larger households might have more diverse resource needs, leading to potential trade-offs in pesticide use due to financial constraints. Years of farming (1%): The odds ratio associated with years of farming for the female farmers is 3.009, indicating that with each unit increase in years of farming, the odds of using pesticides rise by a factor of 3.009. Thus, farmers who have been farming for many years are three times more likely to use pesticides. This suggests that farmers who have been farming for many years are inclined to use pesticides. Over time, female farmers accumulate knowledge about pests and their impact on crops. This knowledge might prompt them to adopt pesticide use as a control measure. Experienced female farmers may have developed a network of knowledge-sharing and peer learning within their farming communities. Through interactions with fellow farmers, extension services, or farmer groups, they may have been exposed to information about the risks and benefits of pesticide use. This exchange of knowledge can influence their decision-making process and encourage them to adoptpesticides. Size of cocoa farm (10%): The odds ratio for the size of cocoa farm is 1.055 implying that as the farm size of the female farmers increases, the odds of using pesticides increases. This means that farmers with larger cocoa farms are more likely to use pesticides compared to those with smaller farms. This could indicate that larger farms face greater challenges with pests and diseases that require the use of pesticides for effective crop protection. One possible interpretation is that as farms increase in size, they might require more intensive management practices to maintain productivity. Larger farms could be more vulnerable to pest outbreaks due to the increased availability of host plants and a greater potential for pests to spread. Consequently, farmers might resort to pesticide use as a means to protect their investment. The finding indicates a need for improved training and educational programmes for female farmers on integrated pest management practices. Premium access (5%): For female farmers who have premium access, the odds in favour of pesticide use increase by a factor of 2.038. This implies that when female farmers have access to a premium, they are more than twice as likely to use pesticides compared to those without access. Female farmers who receive premium prices are more likely to have established relationships with buyers, cooperatives, or organizations that value sustainable and high-quality cocoa. These market connections often provide access to information, training, and resources related to pest management, including the use of pesticides. The availability of such support can increase the likelihood of female farmers adopting pesticide practices to meet market requirements and maintain their premium price status. Participation in training programme (10%): For female farmers who participate in training programmes, the odds in favour of pesticide use increase by a factor of 3.080. This implies that female farmers who participate in training programmes are three times more likely to use pesticides as compared to their counterparts who do not participate in training programmes. Training programmes provide female farmers with access to knowledge and information about pesticide usage. These programmes often focus on teaching proper pesticide application techniques, safety measures, and integrated pest management practices. By participating in such programmes, female farmers gain a better understanding of the benefits and risks associated with pesticide use. This increased knowledge and awareness can positively influence their decision-making process and lead to higher adoption of pesticide practices.

3.5. Determinants of aspirations of male/female cocoa farmers towards pesticide usage

Table 6 presents the ordered logit analysis on the determinants of the aspiration of male and female cocoa farmers towards pesticide usage. The test statistics for the male model indicate that the model is statistically significant (LR chi²(13) = 36.96, p-value = 0.000). The pseudo-R² value of 0.155 suggests that the independent variables in the model explain approximately 15.5% of the variation in male farmers’ aspiration towards pesticide usage.

Table 6. Ordered logit analysis on the determinants of the aspiration of male and female cocoa farmers towards pesticide usage

Variable	Male			Female
	Coef.	Std. Err.	Odds ratio	Coef.	Std. Err.	Odds ratio
Age of respondent	0.042*	0.025	0.892	0.023**	0.025	2.036
Marital status	1.113**	0.505	1.028	0.479	0.351	1.172
Household size	−0.047	0.077	0.936	0.165	0.126	1.191
Years of Education	0.057	0.158	2.720	0.734**	0.337	2.030
Years of farming	0.077**	0.035	2.027	−0.049	0.042	1.246
Age of cocoa farm	0.088	0.034	3.009	0.043	0.044	1.326
Size of cocoa farm	−0.062	0.046	2.178	−0.030	0.083	2.722
Religion	−0.975***	0.372	2.009	0.124	0.579	0.931
Number of extension contacts	0.119*	0.064	1.062	−0.160	0.106	1.129
Access to premium	−0.151	0.561	1.788	0.267	0.924	0.973
Producing under a certification scheme	−0.445	0.549	2.417	0.718	1.012	2.478
Membership in cocoa farmers’ organization	−0.499	0.607	3.411	−0.983	0.771	1.202
Participation in training programme	−0.080	0.867	2.926	1.157	1.221	3.343
/cut1	1.187	1.425	1.187	1.223	2.154	1.223
/cut2	1.483	1.672	1.483	1.483	1.412	1.183
Observations	182			182
LR chi^2(13)	36.96			28.25
Prob > chi^2	0.000			0.0084
Pseudo R^2	0.155			0.1807
Log-likelihood	−100.14			−64.0142

Source: Field Survey, (2022). Note: ***p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.10.

For the male farmers, the following variables are statistically significant at a 10% significance level or better: Age of Respondent (10%): The odds ratio associated with the age of male farmers is 0.892, indicating that with each unit increase in age, the odds of aspiring to use pesticide rise by a factor of 0.892. This suggests that as male farmers grow older, they are more inclined to aspire towards using pesticides for pest management on their farms. This could reflect a preference for established practices or a perception that pesticides are more effective. Older male farmers often have accumulated years of experience in agriculture. This experience might include periods of increased reliance on pesticide use, especially during times when chemical inputs were more commonly recommended and available. Such experience could contribute to the inclination to continue using pesticides. Marital Status (5%): For male farmers who are married, the odds in favour of aspiration with regard to pesticide use increase by a factor of 1.028. This implies that married farmers are more likely to have a higher aspiration towards pesticide use as compared to their counterparts who are not married. Marital status might be an indicator of the roles and responsibilities within a household. Married male farmers often bear the responsibility of providing for their families and ensuring economic stability. The financial implications of crop losses due to pests can have a significant impact on their livelihoods and the well-being of their families. As a result, married male farmers may feel a stronger need to protect their crops and ensure a successful harvest. This heightened responsibility may lead to a higher aspiration towards pesticide usage as a means to mitigate potential pest-related risks and safeguard their family’s economic welfare. Years of farming (5%): The odds ratio associated with years of farming for the male farmers is 2.027, indicating that with each unit increase in years of farming, the odds of aspiring to use pesticides rise by a factor of 2.027. Male Farmers with extensive years of farming experience are two times more inclined to utilize pesticides. As male farmers gain more experience, they might encounter various challenges related to pest infestations, diseases, and crop losses. Experience could lead them to prioritize measures like pesticide use to mitigate these challenges, especially if they have seen positive results in the past. Farmers with more years of experience might be more risk-averse due to their exposure to different agricultural scenarios. They might opt for pesticide use as a way to safeguard their investments and livelihoods against potential losses. Number of extension contacts (10%): The odds ratio of 1.062 suggests that as the number of extension contacts rises, the odds of pesticide use among male farmers also increase. Thus, male farmers who have contact with extension have a higher aspiration to use pesticides. This implies that as the frequency of extension contacts increases, the likelihood of male farmers using pesticides also increases. Farmers who have more extension contacts might be exposed to a greater amount of information about pest management practices, which could include the benefits and application of pesticides. This information could contribute to an increased inclination toward pesticide use. Extension contacts might facilitate better access to resources, including pesticides, among male farmers. Greater access to these inputs could lead to a higher likelihood of using them as part of pest management strategies. This agrees with the findings of Ankuyi et al. (2022) who reported extension contact to have a positive impact on the aspiration of cocoa farmers.

For female farmers, the significant determinants of knowledge towards pesticide use are as follows: Age (5%): The odds ratio of 2.036 indicates that as the age of female farmers increases, the odds of aspiring to use pesticides rise by a factor of approximately 2.036. This suggests a significant positive association between age and the aspiration to use pesticides. This implies that as female farmers age, their inclination to consider using pesticides for pest management on their farms doubles. The historical context of farming practices might play a role. Older generations of female farmers might have been exposed to a farming landscape where pesticide use was more common and widely recommended as a pest control strategy. Years of education (5%): For every 1 unit increase in education (a year), the odds in favour of aspiring to use pesticides increase by a factor of 2.030. The statement indicates that as the level of education increases among female farmers, their aspiration to use pesticides also increases. This suggests a positive association between education and the intention to use pesticides for pest management. Education can enhance technological literacy, enabling farmers to better understand the benefits and risks associated with pesticide use. With increased education, female farmers may have a better understanding of the benefits and potential risks associated with pesticide application. This knowledge can lead to a more informed decision-making process, where they can assess the necessity, effectiveness, and potential environmental and health impacts of pesticide use.

4. Conclusion

In this study, we assessed the drivers of determinants of four key dimensions (i.e., knowledge, attitude, practices and aspirations) of pesticide application by cocoa farmers in the West Akim Municipal, Ghana. We used a multi-stage sampling technique to select 182 male and 182 female cocoa farmers from 10 towns in the municipality. Binary and ordered logit models were employed to analyze the determinants of knowledge, attitude, practices, and aspirations of pesticide use among male and female cocoa farmers. With respect to knowledge of male cocoa farmers on pesticide application, the study concludes that they are likely to be influenced by their age, education, membership in the cooperative society and participation in training programmes. With respect to the knowledge of female cocoa farmers on pesticide application, they are likely to be influenced by their age, farm size and extension contacts. The attitude of male cocoa farmers is influenced by their household size and extension contacts while that of the female cocoa farmers is influenced by their marital status, religion and participation in training programmes. The practice of male cocoa farmers is influenced by their age, extension contact, membership in the cooperative society and participation in extension training programmes. The practice of female cocoa farmers is influenced by their household size, farming experience, farm size, access to premium and participation in extension training programmes. The aspirations of male cocoa farmers are likely to be influenced by their age, marital status, years of farming experience, religion and extension contacts while the aspirations of female cocoa farmers are likely to be influenced by their age and education. The study sheds light on the complex interplay of factors influencing pesticide use among male and female cocoa farmers in Ghana. It provides crucial information for stakeholders to develop targeted interventions, gender-sensitive policies, and sustainable agricultural practices to support the cocoa industry and the well-being of farmers. The emphasis on gender dynamics in cocoa farming offers opportunities to implement gender-responsive policies and programmes. Tailoring interventions to the specific needs of male and female farmers can lead to more equitable and efficient outcomes in the cocoa sector. The findings underscore the importance of creating and enforcing pesticide usage policies that consider the socio-economic and gender-related factors influencing farmers’ practices. Implementing policies that promote safe and sustainable pesticide usage while considering the specific needs of male and female farmers can lead to improved outcomes for both agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability. Based on the results, the primary takeaway is that achieving inclusivity within the cocoa industry, especially pesticide use requires a strong focus on gender responsiveness and holistic growth. The study stresses the need for gender-responsive pesticide application policies in the cocoa sector

It is recommended that efforts to increase the knowledge of farmers on pesticide usage or application by the Ghana Cocoa Board should target female cocoa farmers, young farmers, illiterate farmers, smallholder farmers, and non-members of farmer cooperatives. Again, the cooperative system among cocoa farmers should be enhanced to become an avenue for training farmers to increase their knowledge, attitudes, practices and aspirations. Extension contacts with cocoa farmers needs to be increased to develop their knowledge, attitude, practices and aspirational capacity on pesticide usage. An attitudinal change among cocoa farmers could be enhanced if cocoa farmers with large farm sizes, male farmers, farmers with less farming experience, and smallholders farmers with no access to premium are targeted by the Ghana Cocoa Board. COCOBOD could develop and implement gender-sensitive training programmes that specifically address the knowledge, attitudes, practices and aspirations of pesticide application among both men and women cocoa farmers. These programmes should consider the specific needs, roles, and responsibilities of men and women in cocoa farming.

The active participation of both men and women cocoa farmers in decision-making processes related to pesticide use must be promoted. Encourage the formation of farmer groups or associations where men and women can collectively discuss and make decisions regarding pesticide application practices. Strengthen the extension services provided to cocoa farmers, ensuring that they are gender-responsive and inclusive. Extension agents should receive training on gender-sensitive approaches and be equipped with the necessary knowledge and resources to support men and women farmers in pesticide management. In terms of policy support, advocate for gender-responsive policies and regulations that address the specific needs and challenges faced by men and women cocoa farmers in pesticide use. Policy support should aim to promote sustainable and safe pesticide practices while ensuring gender equity and social inclusiveness.

The study’s findings are based on data collected from the West Akim Municipality in Ghana. As a result, the generalizability of the findings to other regions or countries with different cocoa farming contexts may be limited. Cultural, social, and economic variations could influence the results in other settings. The study focused primarily on gender as a differentiating factor among cocoa farmers. However, it is essential to recognize that gender intersects with other social identities, such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and geographic location. Future studies should consider incorporating an intersectional lens to better understand how multiple identities influence farmers’ experiences and outcomes. Comparative studies could be conducted across different regions or countries to explore how the gender dynamics of pesticide use in cocoa farming vary in different contexts. Compare the experiences and challenges faced by men and women cocoa farmers in pesticide use, taking into account socio-cultural, economic, and institutional factors. Future research can explore how social and economic factors like income, education, access to resources and social connections impact the differences in pesticide use based on gender. Additionally, research can focus on how these factors work together with gender roles and societal expectations to shape farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, practices and aspirations when it comes to using pesticides.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

Data is available from the authors upon request.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Enoch Kwame Tham-Agyekum

Enoch Kwame Tham-Agyekum is a lecturer at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Kumasi, Ghana. His key areas of interest are Development Communication and Media Studies, Monitoring and Evaluation, Gender, Extension Education and Rural Development.

David Boansi

David Boansi is a lecturer at KNUST, Ghana. His key areas of interest are Agricultural Economics, International Economics, Agricultural Policy, International Trade and Climate Change.

Camillus Abawiera Wongnaa

Camillus Abawiera Wongnaa holds is a Senior Lecturer and an Agricultural Economist in the Department of Agricultural Economics, Agribusiness and Extension of KNUST. With his research focus on agricultural economics and agribusiness, he has authored several refereed journal articles which are indexed in Google Scholar, Scopus and other credible refereed journal databases.

Fred Ankuyi

Fred Ankuyi holds an MPhil degree in Agricultural Extension and Development Communication from the KNUST in Kumasi, Ghana. With a keen focus on gender, climate change, sustainable and regenerative agriculture, he is deeply invested in conducting research in these areas.

Dadson Awunyo-Vitor

Dadson Awunyo-Vitor is a professor in the Department of Agricultural Economics, Agribusiness and Extension, KNUST. His area of expertise is in Agricultural Economics, Accounting and Taxation. His main areas of research interest are Agricultural and Business Finance; however, he includes.

John-Eudes Andivi Bakang

John-Eudes Andivi Bakang is an Associate Professor at KNUST, Ghana. He has over 25 years of teaching experience in Agricultural Extension.

Angela Otiwaa Acheampong

Angela Otiwaa Acheampong holds an MSc degree in Agricultural Extension and Development Communication from KNUST.