The role of destination brand-oriented leadership in shaping tourism destination brand ambassadorship behavior among local residents in Tanzania

Abstract

The Chengdu Declaration on Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals emphasizes the importance of promoting local residents’ involvement in building inclusive tourism development across all aspects, including business strategies. However, there has been little focus on promoting inclusivity of local residents in destination branding as a business strategy. This study aims to investigate the role of political leaders in shaping local residents to behave as destination brand ambassadors, responding to calls from scholars and practitioners to explore the position of local residents in achieving inclusive destination branding. The study adopts corporate branding theory to explore the role of leaders in motivating local residents to demonstrate positive brand-building behavior, specifically brand ambassadorship behavior. To test the proposed structural model, the study uses cross-sectional survey data from 313 local residents in Dodoma, the capital city of Tanzania. The results indicate that brand-oriented leadership has a significant influence on local residents’ intentions to demonstrate brand ambassadorship behavior through public trust. This proposed and tested model can be used as a valuable guideline for tourism destination administrators and marketers to develop effective strategies. Finally, the study concludes with implications and future research directions.

Keywords:

• destination branding
• destination brand oriented leadership
• brand ambassadorship behavior
• tourism destination

1. Introduction

Local residents’ participation in destination branding has recently been a dominant tenet of sustainable destination marketing (Amani, 2022b; Amani & Chao, 2023; Wassler et al., 2019, 2021). However, literature indicates that locals have often been left out of the branding process and relegated to the role of mere observers, rather than active participants in inclusive destination branding (Amani, 2022a; Hay et al., 2022; Rebelo et al., 2020). This is due to the adoption of a product branding approach (which centers on the customers or tourists) in the marketing of tourism destinations, without providing mechanisms for local residents to get involved in branding initiatives (Lever et al., 2022; Rebelo et al., 2020; Rybina, 2021; Xiong et al., 2019). Moreover, contemporary branding initiatives are primarily driven by economic considerations, leading to a lack of attention to the perspectives of local residents (Rebelo et al., 2020; Wassler et al., 2019, 2021). Recently, divergent theoretical explanations and definitions of destination branding have emerged, causing confusion among academics and practitioners when integrating theory and practice (Amani & Chao, 2021a; Wassler et al., 2021). Wassler et al. (2019) and Zhang and Xu (2019b) have addressed this paradox by advocating for the adoption of concepts related to corporate branding theory in destination branding. Corporate branding focuses on building a corporate reputation by branding both entities and their members, such as employees, rather than a single product or service (Hankinson, 2012; Hoque, 2016; Lim & Weaver, 2014; Rather et al., 2020).

Academic literature suggests that corporations and tourism destinations share similar complexities, especially concerning stakeholder involvement (Amani & Chao, 2021b, 2023; Wassler et al., 2021; Xiong et al., 2019). Therefore, corporate branding could offer the best conceptualization of how local residents, as stakeholders in tourism destinations, can participate in destination branding (Bowen & Sotomayor, 2022; Hankinson, 2012; Wassler et al., 2021). In light of corporate branding theory, destination branding should be perceived as a comprehensive approach in which a tourism destination, its stakeholders, and a responsible government authority collaborate to promote the destination (Amani & Chao, 2021a; Hankinson, 2007; Hoque, 2016; Kladou et al., 2015). The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) has also promoted an approach that focuses on the significant involvement of local residents, as outlined in The Chengdu Declaration on Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Bowen & Sotomayor, 2022; UNWTO, 2017, 2018). Bowen and Sotomayor (2022) and Rebelo et al. (2020) argue that the UNWTO highlights the importance of engaging and empowering local residents, including service providers and underprivileged communities, in marketing efforts such as destination branding. In light of the SDGs, the UNWTO encourages political institutions and destination marketing organizations (DMOs) to develop programs that add value not only for tourists but also for local residents (Bowen & Sotomayor, 2022).

In the context of UNWTO SDGs, it is essential for political institutions and DMOs to establish enabling environments that inspire and empower local residents to actively contribute to the development of an inclusive destination brand (Bowen & Sotomayor, 2022; UNWTO, 2017). However, despite scholars’ efforts to emphasize the importance of local residents’ participation in inclusive tourism development (Amani, 2022a; Kock et al., 2019; Wassler et al., 2019), their roles have not been thoroughly explored in the destination branding domain (Bowen & Sotomayor, 2022; Jeuring & Haartsen, 2017; Wassler et al., 2021; Zhang & Xu, 2019a). Limited evidence exists on the drivers that can motivate and empower local residents to demonstrate role-based behavior or co-create value in inclusive destination branding (Amani, 2022a; Wassler et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2021). Neglecting or excluding local residents can lead to counter branding campaigns, which aim to undermine or challenge the branding efforts of DMOs in a particular tourism destination (Amani & Chao, 2023; Rebelo et al., 2020). Despite the challenges in involving local residents in destination branding, if a tourism destination can involve them, they can stimulate various positive brand-related behaviors (Amani, 2022a; Jeuring & Haartsen, 2017). Amani (2022a) and Piehler et al. (2020) contend that enabling environments such as brand-oriented leadership can encourage local residents to engage in positive brand-related behavior. Uchinaka et al. (2019) and Wassler et al. (2021) categorized ambassadorship behavior, which involves living and breathing the destination brand, as a typical example of positive brand-related behavior that can be demonstrated by fully engaged local residents.

Several studies have examined the drivers of positive brand-related behavior among local residents. Amani (2022a) explains that social media brand engagement stimulates local resident voice behavior. In addition, Piehler et al. (2020) revealed that brand-oriented leadership behavior can enhance brand commitment among local residents. On the other hand, Wassler et al. (2021) unveiled the role of public trust in building brand ambassadorship behavior among local residents. Overall, various studies have attempted to examine the position of local residents in stimulating positive brand-related behavior and recommend the importance of extending this research realm due to its significance in realizing inclusive destination branding (Piehler et al., 2020; Uchinaka et al., 2019; Wassler et al., 2021). Zhang and Xu (2019a) argue that inclusive approaches that capture important resident-centric constructs remain missing. They adopt the novel standpoint of “residents as active partners” and endeavor to examine it using a quantitative approach. Uchinaka et al. (2019) emphasized that DMOs have a specific role to play in determining antecedents of ambassadorship behavior and internal branding from corporate branding can contribute to building such positive brand-related behavior. Furthermore, Kock et al. (2019) discovered that tourism ethnocentrism (i.e., prescriptive belief and feeling of obligation to support the domestic tourism economy) has a significant impact on building residents’ supportive behavior toward the domestic tourism economy. Lever et al. (2022) who examined national identification as a determinant of local residents’ destination advocacy behavior, found that the stronger one’s national identification, the more likely one is to advocate for their nation.

Despite the existence of empirical studies on destination branding that focus on local residents, scholars such as Wassler et al. (2021) argue that there is a research gap in understanding how local residents relate to their branding authorities and the official branding efforts of a tourist destination. While local residents’ empowerment has been well-studied with respect to poverty alleviation and sustainable tourism, such as the conservation of natural resources for tourism development (Wassler et al., 2021), it has not been widely integrated into the destination branding process (Amani & Chao, 2021a). However, empowering citizens politically through brand-oriented leadership, can contribute to decision-making, social consensus as a basis for government action, and planned development (Amani, 2022a; Wassler et al., 2021). Public trust stems from the belief that public institutions work effectively and depends on one’s evaluation of public institutions’ performance in relation to the public’s expectations (Nunkoo et al., 2013; Wassler et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2022). Therefore, the current study responds to this scholarly call by developing a model that seeks to investigate the influence of brand-oriented leadership in building brand ambassadorship behavior through public trust. “Public trust” refers to trust in relevant political institutions and other branding authorities. The study uses social learning theory to examine how local residents imitate and adopt the behaviors of their political leaders by participating in ambassadorship behavior. The study tests a framework that explains the relationship between brand-oriented leadership, public trust, and ambassadorship based on a sample of 313 residents of Dodoma city. The study aims to address the following questions:

RQ1:

What is the influence of brand-oriented leadership on destination brand ambassadorship behavior?

RQ2:

What is the mediating role of public trust in the relationship between brand-oriented leadership and destination brand ambassadorship behaviour?

2. Literature review and theoretical underpinning

2.1. Social learning theory

Social learning theory which was proposed by Bandura (1977) explains the foundational role of observing, modeling, and imitating in building individual behavior. This theory is relevant in this study because literature suggests that, local residents develop brand-building behavior through the influence of political leaders. However, evidence shows that the participation of local residents in destination branding is still low because contemporary decisions by political institutions do not inspire them to participate in the process (Amani & Chao, 2023; Wassler et al., 2021). The study argues that local residents can be motivated to participate in brand-building behavior, such as ambassadorship, by observing the behavior demonstrated by their local political leaders. Social learning theory emphasizes the interactional nature of environmental and cognitive dimensions in influencing human learning and behavior. It is related to behaviorist learning theories that focus on classical conditioning and operant conditioning in behavior building (Crain, 2021). According to social learning theory, behavior building is motivated by a learning process that contains stimuli and responses, from which an individual develops behavior out of context through observational learning (Pratt et al., 2010). In the current study, we propose a model that suggests that ambassadorship behavior should be considered as a behavior that local residents observe, model, and imitate from their leaders in a particular environment through observational learning. The study considers brand-oriented leadership as stimuli that communicate valuable information to local residents and stimulate brand ambassadorship behavior as responses. Overall, for this relationship to occur, an individual, in this case, local residents, should be exposed to observational learning, which is the behavior of political leaders in demonstrating brand patriotic leadership, i.e., brand-oriented leadership. Using social learning theory, the study offers theoretical justification that local residents learn and imitate perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors that support destination brand values by observing the behaviors of leaders (Piehler et al., 2020).

2.2. Destination branding in Tanzania

Following the outbreak and spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, Tanzania’s tourism industry, the most lucrative sector in the country’s economy, was severely impacted with a significant decline in international tourist arrivals and receipts (Amani, 2023; Henseler et al., 2022). The outbreak of COVID-19 was estimated to cause a decline of 76.6 percent in the number of international tourists, representing a decrease of 437,000 from 1,867,000 (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), 2020). This decline is expected to affect the contribution of the sector to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (MNRT, 2020). The pandemic’s impact on the tourism industry is a serious setback to the country’s social and economic development. Therefore, initiatives to revive the sector in the post-COVID-19 pandemic period are necessary (Amani, 2023; Amani & Ismail, 2022). To revive the sector, some initiatives have been adopted, including the implementation of COVID-19 preventive measures in tourism operations, marketing measures to reposition the sector and the country as a safe place to visit, and investing in various supporting services or auxiliary services (MNRT, 2020). Some marketing efforts aimed to encourage local residents to consider the country among the most conducive places to live, to build patriotism, citizenship behavior, and ambassadorship. In 2022, the president of the United Republic of Tanzania, Her Excellency Samia Suluhu Hassan, prepared a short film branded as Tanzania Royal Tour Film, as part of the marketing efforts to revamp the sector during the post-COVID-19 pandemic period and reposition the country in the world tourism market (National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), 2022.

The Tanzania Royal Tour Film has the objective of promoting the country as a unique and unrivaled tourist destination through a positioning strategy called “Tanzania Unforgettable Experience”. The film showcases narratives of potential historical sites such as the island of Zanzibar and the Ngorongoro crater, which is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site (Masao et al., 2015; Melubo & Lovelock, 2019). Additionally, the film provides an explanation of Tanzania’s history, culture, economic and social development, and its strategic contribution in fighting for the independence of various African countries (MOF, 2022). The film was launched in New York and Los Angeles in the United States of America, with more than 6,000 visitors, including political leaders, tourism stakeholders, business people, and investors, attending the events (MNRT, 2022). Several international broadcasting companies such as CBS, Fox News, NBC, and PBS-Amazon Prime Video also participated in the launch (MNRT, 2022). Furthermore, the film was shown on BILIBILI, a digital platform in China, which is an emerging tourism market and has over 750,000 followers (Embassy of the United Republic of Tanzania in China, 2022). In Tanzania, the film was officially launched in several cities, including Dar-es-Salaam, the business city; Dodoma, the capital city; the spice island of Zanzibar; and Arusha City, which is a strategic area for tourism development (Amani, 2023; Amani & Ismail, 2022). The film’s contribution to the country’s tourism industry was evident in the statistics released by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), which showed an increase in international tourists from 42,173 in May 2021 to 89,271 in May 2022, equivalent to a 117.7 percent increase (NBS, 2022).

2.3. Brand ambassadorship behavior

Overall, literature has highlighted the importance of DMOs investing significant efforts in determining the way local residents are portrayed and represented in inclusive destination branding and its outcome, namely destination brand identity (Amani, 2022b; Amani & Chao, 2023; Bowen & Sotomayor, 2022). Local residents are critical customers who actively participate in marketing the tourism destination through their ambassadorship behavior (Amani, 2022a; Garrod et al., 2012; Swapan et al., 2022). Taecharungroj (2016); Wassler et al. (2019, 2021), and Zenker and Erfgen (2014) argue that destination brand ambassadorship behavior refers to the practices, attitudes, and advocacy demonstrated by local residents who actively promote and represent their destination to others, thereby contributing to the positive image and reputation of the destination. Brand ambassadorship behavior involves planned or spontaneous brand promotion or development-related behavior aimed at enhancing destination brand equity (Uchinaka et al., 2019; Wassler & Hung, 2017; Zhao et al., 2022). Brand ambassadorship behavior can be explained as a planned or spontaneous brand promotion-related or development-related behavior focusing on enhancing destination brand equity (Wassler & Hung, 2017). Through brand ambassadorship, local residents are seen as internal stakeholders of the tourism destination, expected to embody and live the brand. Amani and Chao (2021a); Josiassen et al. (2022); Kock et al. (2019) and Lever et al. (2022) suggest that positive word of mouth and recommendations by local residents are considered authentic and trustworthy, enhancing brand communication of the tourism destination. Whether it is the result of self-motivation or external influences, as suggested by the current study, ambassadorship behavior is among the most cost-effective and efficient compared to traditional advertising methods and is perceived as the least biased and most authentic form of branding. As ambassadors for the destination brand, local residents can transmit reliable and favorable messages about the tourism destination to potential tourists or visitors.

2.4. Public trust

Public trust has emerged as an important resource in promoting support behavior among local residents toward various tourism destination development programs, including destination branding (Amani & Chao, 2023; Bowen et al., 2017; Wassler et al., 2021). Studies suggest that public trust can be motivated by specific behaviors and practices of elected leaders through brand-oriented leadership (Lin et al., 2017; Piehler et al., 2020; Rebelo et al., 2020). Various narratives that support local residents-centered dominant logic suggest that the participation of local residents in destination branding can be realized when there is trust between the authorities responsible for tourism development and the local residents as potential stakeholders (Amani, 2022b). It is widely accepted that local residents are ready to offer their commitment to tourism development when there are conducive environments that allow them to commit their resources (Rose-Redwood et al., 2019; Wassler et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2022). The term “public trust” can be conceptualized as an attitudinal behavior developed and expressed by local residents by showing belief and faith toward leaders and authorities, such as DMOs, in a particular tourism destination (Wassler et al., 2021). Local residents can be active beneficiaries of destination branding when there is a trusting environment in the whole process of designing a destination brand.

Recent research highlights that public trust in DMOs and other government institutions has a significant impact on shaping local residents’ attitudes and support for destination branding-related initiatives (Amani & Chao, 2023; Wassler & Hung, 2017; Wassler et al., 2019). Furthermore, it is fair to conceptualize that public trust is the outcome of a comparison between the performance of various DMOs and government institutions in relation to the expectations of local residents (Amani & Chao, 2023). When local residents experience and develop distrust of DMOs and government institutions, they reduce the likelihood and willingness to participate in civic activities, including ambassadorship behavior (Bowen & Sotomayor, 2022; Piehler et al., 2020; Rebelo et al., 2020). A low level of public trust and the perception of inefficiency in DMOs and political institutions can restrain the readiness of local residents to play a part in destination-related promotional activities (Wassler et al., 2019, 2021). Amani (2022a); Amani and Chao (2023); Xiong et al. (2019) and Zhao et al. (2022) suggest that a lack of public trust can fuel other negative behaviors from local residents, including counter-branding campaigns, which involve efforts carried out by local residents to challenge or oppose an established brand identity. Through this behavior, local residents can counter the positive image or perception of a destination by promoting contrasting messages or presenting negative images.

2.5. Brand-oriented leadership

Existing literature suggests the cardinal role of political institutions and political leaders in determining the success of destination branding (Braun, 2012). Scholars such as Piehler et al. (2020) have emphasized the importance of brand-oriented leadership as a key element in corporate branding, which promotes the role of leaders in shaping local residents’ behavior in support of destination branding. Given the current focus on the local resident-centered dominant logic, where local residents are expected to assume a role and responsibility in destination branding, political leaders are expected to act as role models in shaping the relevant behavior of local residents towards the destination brand (Amani & Chao, 2023; Wassler et al., 2021). In the same vein, various institutions and practitioners in tourism suggest that political leaders are an important engine in creating environments to ensure inclusiveness in destination branding as a strategic component in achieving sustainable tourism development. For instance, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) through the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) suggests that political institutions and political leaders should create enabling environments that encourage local residents to participate in inclusive destination branding as value co-creators (Bowen & Sotomayor, 2022). The role of leaders in promoting positive brand-related behaviors, such as brand ambassadorship behavior, is to demonstrate desirable behavior that can be imitated by local residents (Piehler et al., 2020). In the context of destination branding, brand-oriented leadership is a category of extra-role brand-building behavior exhibited by leaders in tourism destinations, purposely to inspire local residents to demonstrate positive brand-related behavior through appealing to brand values (Amani, 2022a; Amani & Chao, 2021b).

Various existing narratives in destination and place branding indicate that transformational leaders, who are frequently motivated to promote the internalization and embodiment of the values associated with the destination brand, typically exhibit brand-oriented leadership (Piehler et al., 2020). In recent times, there has been an increasing interest in conceptualizing the behavior, influential power, and authority of political institutions, including leaders, in promoting local residents’ support for various tourism destination activities, including destination branding (Hankinson, 2010). Therefore, the ability and willingness of local residents to provide a seamless brand experience for visitors and guests is shaped and nurtured by the efforts of tourism destination leaders (Amani, 2022a). In other words, the extent to which local residents demonstrate positive brand-related behavior is highly dependent on how they perceive the commitment and efforts of their leaders in ensuring the success of destination branding by embodying and living its values (Chen & Šegota, 2015). Leaders play a crucial role in motivating local residents to display positive brand-related behavior aligned with the tourism destination’s vision. In summary, local residents can embrace brand values by emulating the behavior of political leaders only when there is trust (Wassler et al., 2019, 2021). Therefore, brand-oriented leadership must foster trust because local residents learn and embrace destination brand values through the actions of their leaders.

3. Development of hypotheses

3.1. Relationship between brand-oriented leadership and brand ambassadorship behavior

Research in the domain of brand-oriented leadership suggests that leaders play a crucial role in endorsing the brand to both internal and external stakeholders (Ayrom & Tumer, 2020). A leadership style that is supportive of the brand can influence subordinates to develop an intent to support the brand as well. Various studies in brand-oriented leadership have shown that supportive behavior towards the brand by leaders has a significant influence on determining various extra-role behaviors in employees (Ruediger Kaufmann et al., 2012). For instance, a study by Terglav et al. (2016) revealed that brand-oriented leadership has an impact on determining employee’s extra-role behavior in the hospitality industry. Furthermore, research by Piehler et al. (2020) demonstrated that brand-oriented leadership behavior can enhance brand commitment among local residents. Empirical evidence indicates that brand-oriented leadership has been well conceptualized in the literature related to organizational behavior, using a corporate branding perspective (Chang et al., 2015; Ruediger Kaufmann et al., 2012). In other words, the corporate branding perspective provides a basis for conceptualizing the effect of leaders in determining the behavior of individuals and its impact on the entire organization (Chang et al., 2015). In the context of corporate branding, the reputation of an organization is determined through branding both entities and their members, such as employees, rather than a single product or service (Ruediger Kaufmann et al., 2012). This theoretical understanding has also been adopted in destination branding, where the reputation of a destination can be achieved through branding destination attributes and their members, such as local residents (Piehler et al., 2020; Wassler et al., 2021). In this view, this study theorizes that political leaders can motivate local residents to demonstrate positive behavior towards the destination brand by demonstrating ambassadorship behavior. Thus, political leaders can influence local residents to demonstrate positive behavior towards the destination brand through their brand-oriented leadership. Hence, the hypothesis is that

H₁:

Brand-oriented leadership positively influences brand ambassadorship behavior

3.2. Relationship between brand-oriented leadership and public trust

Brand-oriented leadership is a popular concept in organizational behavior that emphasizes the importance of leaders becoming role models by demonstrating behaviors that support the brand (Ayrom & Tumer, 2020; Morhart et al., 2009; Ruediger Kaufmann et al., 2012). Research suggests that subordinates or followers are more likely to exhibit brand-supporting behavior when leaders make sufficient efforts and commitments to embodying the brand (Afshardoost et al., 2021; Morhart et al., 2009; Piehler et al., 2020). Leaders who exhibit brand-supportive behavior can influence and motivate their subordinates to imitate the same behavior (Afshardoost et al., 2021; Morhart et al., 2009; Piehler, 2018). This transfer of behavior from leaders to subordinates can be facilitated through the learning process, which has been extensively studied in the context of destination and place branding (Amani, 2022a, 2022b; Piehler et al., 2020). Social learning theory posits that individuals tend to imitate the behavior of those they admire and intend to imitate in the future (Bandura, 1977). Recent research has investigated the role of brand-oriented leadership in fostering residents’ commitment to destination branding, utilizing social learning theory. This study emphasizes the importance of trust and belief in motivating individuals to imitate the behavior of others. The literature on local residents-centered dominant logic suggests that successful inclusive destination branding requires an examination of the applicability and adaptability of brand-oriented leadership (Amani & Chao, 2023; Piehler et al., 2020; Wassler et al., 2019, 2021). Therefore, when adopting brand-oriented leadership in destination branding, leaders must align their efforts and commitments with the destination brand’s values to motivate local residents to do the same (Amani & Chao, 2023; Piehler et al., 2020). Leaders should become role models by demonstrating their willingness to internalize and embody the brand values (Wassler et al., 2019, 2021). This study argues that local residents can imitate leaders’ commitment to the destination brand when they trust their leaders. Hence, the hypothesis is that

H₂:

Brand-oriented leadership positively influences public trust

3.3. Relationship between public trust and brand ambassadorship behavior

Literature on brand-oriented leadership suggests that trust is a paramount component in determining employees’ positive brand behavior (Afshardoost et al., 2021). It is widely accepted that employees imitate behavior when leaders “walk the talk,” which is crucial in cultivating trust (Ayrom & Tumer, 2020). Therefore, employees are empowered to demonstrate imitated behavior when they believe that leaders live up to their promises (Piehler, 2018; Piehler et al., 2020). In the context of a tourism destination, political leaders have emerged as an important engine in motivating local residents to participate in co-creating the value of the destination brand (Piehler et al., 2020). Local residents are considered the heart of a destination brand identity, and they must be motivated to demonstrate positive behavior toward destination branding (Chen & Dwyer, 2018; Garrod et al., 2012; Zhang & Xu, 2019a). Similar to product and service branding, destination branding has emerged with critical challenges for practitioners, and there is low substantive evidence of successful destination brands in the tourism market (Wassler et al., 2019). Wassler et al. (2021) suggest that the lack of public trust in the management of tourism destinations is one of the reasons for the low success rate of destination brands. Most destination branding campaigns are more politically and elite-centered, viewing local residents as mere observers of the outcomes of the destination brand (Amani, 2022a; Amani & Chao, 2023). In the context of a local-resident-centered dominant logic, local residents are perceived as internal stakeholders of the tourism destination, who are expected to embody and live the brand (Jeuring & Haartsen, 2017; Uchinaka et al., 2019; Xiong et al., 2019). Amani (2022a); Amani and Chao (2021a) and Hay et al. (2022) suggest that positive word-of-mouth and recommendations by local residents are perceived to be authentic and trustworthy, which can enhance the brand communication of the tourism destination. Public trust in the tourism destination provides theoretical reasons to explain why local residents decide to participate in extra-role behavior, such as positive recommendations (Wassler et al., 2021). Destination authorities, including political leaders, are an important engine in promoting and sustaining public trust (Amani, 2022a; Amani & Chao, 2023). As suggested by research in the domain of brand-oriented leadership, local residents could be empowered to demonstrate imitated behavior when there have been situations that show that leaders live up to their brand promises (Piehler et al., 2020; Wassler et al., 2021). It is broadly accepted that when a tourist destination accomplishes this strategic decision, local residents can be transformed into destination brand ambassadors and become the most valuable and unpaid tourism destination marketers (Chen & Dwyer, 2018; Garrod et al., 2012; Wassler et al., 2021). Thus, it is hypothesized that

H₃:

Public trust positively influences brand ambassadorship behavior

3.4. Mediation role of public trust

Literature on brand-oriented leadership suggests that employees in an organization can emulate positive behavior exhibited by leaders when they have trust in them (Piehler, 2018). Additionally, subordinates can also display imitated behavior of their leaders when they trust them (Ayrom & Tumer, 2020). This highlights the importance of trust in influencing employees to imitate behavior and motivating them to demonstrate imitated behavior. From a social learning theory perspective, this behavior-building process is motivated by a learning process that involves stimuli and responses, which ultimately shapes an individual’s behavior (Piehler et al., 2020). In the context of destination branding, local residents are often perceived as threats rather than benefactors. However, studies have shown that local residents can imitate positive behavior from the practices and actions of their leaders and DMOs by participating in civic activities such as ambassadorship behavior (Wassler et al., 2019, 2021). This can empower local residents and promote inclusive destination branding. It is important to consider local residents as active beneficiaries and partners in destination branding, rather than passive beneficiaries (Amani & Chao, 2023; Josiassen et al., 2022; Lever et al., 2022). Counter-branding campaigns are a common challenge in destination branding, which result from a lack of public trust among local residents (Zhang & Xu, 2019a; Zhang et al., 2022). These campaigns are aimed at countering the positive image or perception of a destination by promoting negative or contrasting messages. Inclusive destination branding research emphasizes the importance of public trust in DMOs and political institutions, including leaders, in shaping local residents’ intentions to participate in destination promotional-related behavior (Wassler & Hung, 2017; Wassler et al., 2021). Therefore, it is theorized that public trust in DMOs and political institutions, including leaders, plays a crucial role in shaping local residents’ intentions to participate in destination promotional-related behavior. However, this is rarely considered in empirical studies in the destination branding domain (Amani, 2022a; Amani & Chao, 2021a). Thus, it is hypothesized that

H₄:

Public trust mediates the relationship between brand-oriented leadership and brand ambassadorship behavior

3.5. Conceptual model

This study hypothesized a three-factor model, which comprises brand-oriented leadership as an endogenous variable, public trust as a mediator variable, and destination brand ambassadorship behavior as an endogenous variable. The theoretical underpinning of the study is social learning theory, which posits that behavior is motivated by a learning process that involves stimuli and responses. Individuals develop behavior out of context through observational learning. This study develops a structural relationship between variables by theorizing that ambassadorship behavior should be considered as a behavior that local residents observe, model, and imitate from their leaders in a particular environment through observational learning. Thus, the conceptual model presented in Figure 1 indicates that destination brand-oriented leadership can enhance public trust, which motivates local residents to imitate the behavior of leaders through demonstrating brand ambassadorship behavior.

Figure 1. Conceptual model.

3.6. Questionnaire development and measurement scales

To ensure the reliability and validity of the survey data, the questionnaire used in this study employed multiple-item scales from previous or existing studies on brand-oriented leadership, ambassadorship behavior, and destination branding. The questionnaire was designed to represent a theoretical model in which brand-oriented leadership drives brand ambassadorship behavior, with public trust serving as a mediator. To ensure the representativeness and adequacy of the measure items, the questionnaire was content-validated by renowned experts in tourism marketing who specialize in branding. These experts were selected based on their knowledge and experience in tourism marketing. Additionally, pilot testing of the questionnaire was conducted on 50 respondents in the study area, Dodoma town district, and only necessary improvements were made to ensure clarity of the measure items. The selection of 50 respondents was based on scientific recommendations from Whitehead et al. (2016) and Saunders et al. (2007), who suggest that at least 30 respondents are sufficient for pilot testing in social science research. During the pilot testing, all necessary procedures for data collection were considered, including emphasizing to respondents that their confidentiality and anonymity would be protected throughout the process. Brand-oriented leadership was measured using five multiple-item scales adopted from (Ayrom & Tumer, 2020; Piehler et al., 2020), while public trust was measured using four multiple-item scales from (Wassler et al., 2021). Finally, three multiple-item scales from (Wassler & Hung, 2017; Wassler et al., 2021) were used to measure brand ambassadorship behavior. All responses were rated on a five-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating “strongly disagree” and 5 indicating “strongly agree” (Likert et al., 1934, 1993). The questions or measure items used in the instruments are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Psychometric reflective measurement properties

Measurement item	Construct and measurement statement	Standardized Loadings	α	CR
Destination Brand Oriented Leadership			0.903	0.884
dbol1	Our president convincingly lives the identity of Tanzania internally and externally and is a good role model	0.707
dbol2	Our president emphasizes the importance of having a collective sense of our brand mission and vision	0.723
dbol3	Our president displays a sense of power and confidence when talking about Tanzania	0.768
dbol4	Our president goes beyond self-interest for the good of Tanzania	0.884
dbol5	Our president instills pride in me for being associated with our country, Tanzania	0.797
Public Trust			0.894	0.900
pust1	I can generally trust the decision made by our president and various authorities responsible for tourism sector in Tanzania	0.892
pust2	I can generally trust our president and authorities in charge of tourism sector in Tanzania	0.862
pust3	Our president and authorities responsible for tourism sector in Tanzania can be trusted to do what is right without having constantly check on them	0.750
pust4	Our president and authorities responsible for tourism sector in Tanzania are attracting the most appropriate category of tourists.	0.817
Destination Brand Ambassadorship Behavior			0.891	0.895
dbab1	I am willing to engage in promotional initiatives for this destination (Tanzania)	0.764
dbab2	Given the chance, I would write about various promotional initiatives online so my internet contacts would know this destination brand	0.937
dbab3	Given the chance, I plan to participate in future brand related promotional events and activities (e.g. festivals, exhibitions, etc.)	0.871

4. Methodology

4.1. Study setting

This study utilized a cross-sectional survey research design that involved collecting data at a specific time and place using a survey approach. The study was conducted in the Dodoma Region, the capital city of Tanzania, where all political and administrative decisions affecting the tourism sector are made. This region is one of 31 administrative regions located in central Tanzania, which is currently being promoted as an area to diversify the tourism sector, particularly in cultural and historical tourism (Amani, 2022b). The Kondoa Rock-Art Sites, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, houses historical monuments that provide insights into the cultural aspects of societies residing in the central part of Tanzania (Tryon et al., 2018). These remarkable sites are among the region’s most popular tourist attractions, captivating visitors with their rich heritage and significance (Bwasiri & Smith, 2015; Tryon et al., 2018). Furthermore, the region is endowed with the Swagaswaga Game Reserve, home to elephants, warthogs, and the adorable duiker—a small antelope native to sub-Saharan Africa (Lohay et al., 2020). Additionally, the region boasts the Mkungunero Game Reserve, which is part of the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem (Galanti et al., 2006). This reserve is blessed with various wildlife including cow antelope kongoni, giraffe gazelle (gerenuk), hyenas, warthogs, baboons, zebras, elephants, lions, and other captivating animals (Pittiglio et al., 2013). The region is also the sole home of the Tanzanian wine industry, which is the second-largest wine industry on the continent after South Africa. According to the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) national census of 2012, the region had a population of 2.5 million (National Bureau of Statistics, 2013).

4.2. Sampling procedures and sample size

The study utilized a non-probability convenience sampling approach to select 313 local residents residing in the Dodoma town district (Dodoma City Council) in the Dodoma Region. This sampling technique is appropriate when respondents can be effectively accessed at specific points with high population traffic, such as recreation and entertainment points, shopping malls, etc (Zikmund & Carr, 2009). Furthermore, the study collected data from respondents who had watched the Royal Tour film, which means that purposeful sampling techniques were also applied to collect data only from respondents who could provide detailed and validated information about the film as part of the marketing efforts to revamp the tourism sector in Tanzania. The targeted sample for this study was local residents located in the Dodoma Region, and a total of 350 self-administered questionnaires were distributed. Finally, the study’s final sample consisted of 313 valid responses after removing 37 incomplete questionnaires or responses, representing a response rate of 89.4 percent, which is higher than the 50 percent suggested in social science research.

4.3. Data collection design and procedures

The survey was conducted by aligning the questionnaire with the Royal Tour film, a promotional initiative prepared by DMOs to promote Tanzania as a unique tourism destination by engaging Her Excellency Samia Suluhu Hassan, the President of the United Republic of Tanzania. The film can be accessed on various digital platforms and contains messages focused on revamping the tourism sector after the devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. This initiative by the Government of Tanzania is in line with Declaration Number 9 of the Chengdu Declaration on Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals. The declaration emphasizes that national governments and local authorities should take necessary measures to change business practices and behavior to maximize the contribution of tourism through inclusive approaches (UNWTO, 2017). Before answering the survey, participants had to respond to a screening question to test their awareness of the Royal Tour film, which is an example of brand-oriented leadership. Respondents were required to confirm that they are aware of the Royal Tour film as a marketing effort to revamp the tourism sector in Tanzania and have watched the film through any media forum or digital platforms where the film is accessible. During the data collection exercise, all important ethical issues in the research were considered to ensure the validity and reliability of the data. Data collection was done after asking respondents to consent to participate in the study, and the researcher assured respondents’ anonymity and confidentiality in all data collection, analysis, and reporting stages. The main objective of the research was stated to respondents to create a strong basis for ensuring a good response rate. In social science research, these ethical considerations are crucial to managing the problem of common method bias that often occurs in the methodological approach that collects data from respondents for exogenous and endogenous variables. The data was gathered from June 2022 to July 2022.

5. Data analysis and results

5.1. Common method bias

Extant literature in social sciences research suggests that when survey data is collected using self-reported questionnaires from the same participants, common method bias may be a potential issue. Fuller et al. (2016) and Podsakoff et al. (2003) define common method bias as variance attributable to the measurement method rather than the constructs represented by the measures. Common method bias can lead to a false internal consistency, which means that the apparent correlation among variables is generated by their common source rather than the actual constructs they represent. This study employed both procedural and statistical remedies to mitigate the errors associated with common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Procedural remedies included ensuring respondents’ anonymity and assuring them that they could answer the questions as honestly as possible. In terms of statistical remedies, the study conducted Harman’s one-factor test as a post hoc test to establish any potential common factors that might explain the covariance among the constructs. Therefore, all variables underwent exploratory factor analysis to test unrotated factor solutions. The results of Harman’s one-factor test indicated that there was no common factor that explained the majority of the covariance among the measures. Thus, based on the findings, it appears that common method bias may not be a concern in the data.

5.2. Measurement model evaluation

The study developed a model and tested the proposed hypotheses using structural equation modelling (SEM) with AMOS version 21. However, the study employed the two-step SEM approach, in which confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using AMOS version 21 was used to test the validity and reliability of the instrument before examining the structural model (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The study used composite reliability, average variance extracted, and factor loadings to test scale reliability and validity. Hair et al. (2010) suggest that composite reliability values greater than 0.7 indicate good reliability. In addition, factor loadings greater than 0.6 and AVE values higher than 0.5 are acceptable (Valentini et al., 2016). The results in Table 2 indicate that all constructs show acceptable AVE values that are greater than 0.5. In addition, the results in Table 1 indicate that Composite Reliability (CR) values of all constructs show high reliability, ranging from 0.884 to 0.900. Furthermore, as suggested by (Santos & Reynaldo, 2013; Tavakol & Dennick, 2011), internal consistency was achieved because the Cronbach alpha coefficient has a value greater than 0.7, as shown in Table 1. The study used the Fornell-Larcker Criterion to test discriminant validity. Fornell and Larcker (1981) argue that discriminant validity is achieved if the value of the square root of AVE is greater than the value of inter-construct correlation. The findings in Table 2 suggest that discriminant validity was attained because the value of the square root of AVE was greater than the value of inter-construct correlation. On the other hand, various goodness of fit indices were evaluated, including the normed chi-square, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), and the comparative fit index (CFI). The cut-off point of the normed chi-square should be less than 3 (Hooper et al., 2008), and the GFI, NFI, CFI, and TLI should be above 0.90 (Hair et al., 2010). RMSEA values below 0.07 indicate a good fit (Hair et al., 2010). The findings show that the measurement model has a good fit. The normed chi-square (χ²/df) was 1.741, which is below the acceptable level of 3. The GFI value was 0.960, NFI value was 0.968, CFI value was 0.986, and the TLI value was 0.980, all of which were greater than the 0.90 cut-off level. Finally, the RMSEA value was 0.049, which is below the acceptable value of 0.08.

Table 2. Discriminant validity using the Fornell-Larcker criterion

	AVE	MSV	MaxR(H)	DBOL	PUST	DBAB
DBOL	0.606	0.391	0.898	0.778
PUST	0.692	0.011	0.910	0.107	0.832
DBAB	0.740	0.391	0.922	0.625	0.086	0.860

5.3. Structural model evaluation and hypotheses testing

The structural model was developed and utilized to test the proposed hypotheses. structural equation modeling was performed using AMOS version 21 to evaluate the hypotheses. The overall analysis of the model indicated that the structural model was a good fit. The study utilized normed chi-square, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) to evaluate the structural model. According to (Hu & Bentler, 1999), the cut-off point of the normed chi-square should be less than 3 (Kline, 2005) suggests that GFI, NFI, CFI, and TLI should be above 0.90. Additionally, RMSEA values below 0.08 indicate a good fit (Hair et al., 2010). The findings of the study indicated that the normed chi-square (χ²/df) was 2.429, which is below the acceptable level of 3. The GFI value of 0.937, NFI value of 0.954, CFI value of 0.972, and TLI value of 0.962 were all greater than the cut-off level of 0.90. Finally, the RMSEA value of 0.068 indicated a good fit below 0.08. The study used significance tests of the estimated coefficients as the criteria to accept or reject the proposed hypotheses. Hypothesis 1 proposed that brand-oriented leadership influences public trust. This hypothesis was accepted based on the findings presented in Table 3 with (β = 0.592, t-value = 8.827, p-value <0.001). Hypothesis 2 suggested that brand-oriented leadership has a positive significant influence on public trust. This hypothesis was also accepted based on the results presented in Table 3 with (β = 0.169, t-value = 2.118, p-value <0.05). Finally, Hypothesis 3 hypothesized that public trust influences brand ambassadorship behavior. The results presented in Table 3 indicate that this hypothesis was accepted with (β = 0.101, t-value = 2.110, p-value <0.05).

Table 3. Parameter estimation

Hypotheses	Path Models	Standardized Coefficients	Standard error	t-statistics		Decision (Yes/No)
H1	Brand -Oriented Leadership → Brand Ambassadorship Behavior	0.592	0.067	8.827***		Yes
H2	Brand- Oriented Leadership → Public Trust	0.169	0.080	2.118**		Yes
H3	Public Trust → Brand Ambassadorship Behavior	0.101	0.048	2.110**		Yes

*** denotes p-value < 0.001, ** denotes p-value < 0.05.

5.4. Testing of mediation effect

The study proposed in H3 that public trust mediates the relationship between brand-oriented leadership and brand ambassadorship behavior. The hypothesis was tested using process mediation version 3.4, and the findings indicate that BOL (brand-oriented leadership) has a positive and significant effect on both PCT (public trust) (ß = 0.075, LLCI = 0.057, ULCI = 0.207) and BAB (brand ambassadorship behavior) (ß = 0.606, LLCI = 0.498, ULCI = 0.713). Additionally, PCT has a positive and significant effect on BAB (ß = 0.052, LLCI = 0.039, ULCI = 0.143). Finally, the indirect effect of BOL on BAB through PCT was also positive and significant (ß = 0.0039, LLCI = 0.006, ULCI = 0.022). As the confidence interval does not include zero, it can be concluded that public trust mediates the relationship between brand-oriented leadership and brand ambassadorship behavior.

6. Discussion

The study responds to the UNWTO Chengdu Declaration on Tourism and the SDGs, which encourages local residents to participate in achieving the 2030 agenda (UNWTO, 2017). The study proposes and tests a model that investigates the impact of destination brand-oriented leadership on destination brand ambassadorship behavior through public trust. The aim of the study is to explore the reasons for developing brand ambassadorship behavior among local residents. Using social learning theory, the study suggests that brand ambassadorship is an outcome of the learning process of local residents from their leaders. The findings show that brand-oriented leadership and public trust are closely related, implying that local residents react positively to supporting destination branding when their leaders demonstrate positive behavior towards brand values. The study confirms the strategic role of public trust towards DMOs and political leaders as antecedents of brand ambassadorship behavior. The structural model indicates that brand-oriented leadership predicts 32% of the variance in public trust, highlighting the contribution of brand-oriented leadership in building public trust. Overall, several empirical studies demonstrate that local residents can be motivated to participate in positive extra-role brand-building behavior through public trust (Wassler & Hung, 2017; Wassler et al., 2021). Additionally, the UNWTO SDGs suggest that public trust should be the most important strategic weapon embraced to ensure local residents’ participation in inclusive destination tourism development (UNWTO, 2018).

The study investigated the mediating effect of public trust in the relationship between brand-oriented leadership and destination brand ambassadorship behavior. The results showed that public trust plays a crucial role in fostering cooperation and commitment among partners, as well as promoting local residents to imitate the behavior of leaders and DMO managers. The study found that public trust predicts 44% of the variance in destination brand ambassadorship behavior, indicating its significant impact on cultivating such behavior. These findings provide empirical evidence supporting the notion that public trust is an antecedent of local residents’ positive extra-role branding behavior. The study’s results align with the UNWTO Chengdu Declaration on Tourism and SDGs, which emphasizes the importance of inclusive participation of local residents in tourism destination development through trust in institutions like DMOs. Additionally, the findings support the idea proposed by Wassler and Hung (2017) that positive extra-role brand-building behavior stems from local residents’ trust in institutions and leaders of tourist destinations. Furthermore, these findings are consistent with the research conducted by Kock et al. (2019) who discovered that when local residents develop a positive attitude towards the domestic tourism economy, they are more likely to engage in supportive behaviors. These findings are also in line with the research of Lever et al. (2022), who found that highly identified local residents can engage in various positive behaviors, such as destination advocacy and tourism ethnocentrism.

7. Theoretical contribution

The research has advanced our theoretical understanding of the role of an inclusive approach in achieving sustainable tourism marketing through destination branding. The study employed an internal branding approach from a corporate branding perspective to conceptualize inclusive destination branding. In a tourism context, brand-oriented leadership, also known as internal branding management, is suitable for achieving inclusive destination branding as it promotes ambassadorship behavior among local residents. As a result, the study’s findings enhance our comprehension of the contribution of internal branding from corporate branding in achieving inclusive destinations by providing insights into the most effective approach to establishing an integrated model in destination branding. Furthermore, the study’s findings validate the adaptability and applicability of internal branding theories from a corporate branding context in inclusive destination branding research streams. From a theoretical standpoint, internal branding theories from a corporate branding perspective imply that local residents are target groups for brand messages and value co-creators who play a critical role in shaping and reshaping brand experiences for the tourism market.

8. Managerial contribution

It is recommended that leaders should be considered as essential resources in promoting extra role behavior, such as destination brand ambassadorship. Leaders should actively participate in destination marketing efforts by demonstrating supportive behavior and encouraging potential stakeholders to support the destination brand. Additionally, leaders should create initiatives and demonstrate leadership in celebrating local culture and heritage as an integral part of destination brand values. The study also recommended that leaders should encourage the participation of local residents in building the unique identity of the tourism destination by using inclusive approaches. Leaders have a crucial role to play in managing destination branding through promoting all-inclusive participation of local residents. They should adopt a transformational leadership approach or style in which they become visionaries, leading and encouraging local residents towards achieving suitable tourism marketing. Leaders should lead by example by demonstrating positive brand-building behavior that fosters a sense of ownership. A sense of ownership can create pride and attachment to the destination’s brand among local residents, motivating them to actively participate in promoting it.

Moreover, the study recommended implementing deliberate measures to ensure that leaders assume and exercise power and authority as role models in destination branding. It is crucial to ensure that leaders are well-trained and exposed to environments that empower them to discharge their duties and responsibilities in a manner that encourages local residents to imitate and behave similarly. Leaders should promote brand values by demonstrating responsibility and accountability towards destination branding. Empowerment programs should be created to educate leaders on their role and position in promoting various extra role behaviors to local residents. Additionally, training and awareness programs should aim to ensure that leaders develop positive brand-building behaviors that align with the tourism destination’s vision. Various empowerment programs should focus on promoting leaders to take a position as individuals who are responsible for drawing the map that local residents can follow to achieve competitiveness in the tourism market. Leaders should be equipped with capabilities to be influential endorsers of the destination brand to local residents. Leaders should also be encouraged to demonstrate behavior that shows that they are accountable to the tourism destination and local residents. Therefore, it is necessary for leaders to cultivate behaviors such as patriotism and citizenship that encourage individuals to demonstrate a sense of being accountable and responsible towards an entity. This can be achieved by adopting a legal and ethical approach. In other words, a proper legal-policy framework and moral behavior should be encouraged among leaders.

9. Limitations and future research direction

As with the majority of destination branding studies, this study is limited by its cross-sectional design of a single destination, which limits the possibility of generalizing results. Future research in other cities and countries should rely on larger samples to validate the relationship between variables in the proposed model. Additionally, the perspective adopted in the study was that residents are key stakeholders who can demonstrate behavior as ambassadors for the tourism destination. While ambassadorship behavior is discussed in relation to local residents of a tourism destination, research has shown that it is a valid concept for visitors of a tourism destination as well. Therefore, replicating the same model from the viewpoint of visitors or conducting comparative studies including both local residents and visitors to a tourist destination would add valuable contributions to knowledge.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

David Amani

David Amani (PhD) is a research scholar in marketing who pursued his PhD in Business Administration at Mzumbe University in Tanzania. Currently, he is working as a lecturer and researcher in the Department of Business Administration and Management at the University of Dodoma in Tanzania. His research interests include brand management, sports marketing, corporate social responsibility, and entrepreneurial marketing. He has published several papers in various reputable journals such as Service Marketing Quarterly, Social Responsibility Journal, International Hospitality Review, Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, and Future Business Journal.