The turning point and process of player development activities in U-10: A case study of German handball

Abstract

This study aimed to clarify factors forcing changes in player development among U-10 German handball. An interview survey was conducted with Coach A, an expert in children’s handball in Germany. The main results are as follows: Coach A was aware of problems that a concept specific to children’s handball was not widespread in the country in the 1990s. Afterward, handball games suited to children’s ages and developmental stages were introduced at individual and regional levels. The starting point for these efforts was the presence of leading figures who could attract other coaches for player development. These efforts spread from individuals to regions, states, and the German handball federation. This could be because the league system requires the systematic development of technical and tactical skills so that an environment was created that other coaches could imitate. The coaches were assumed to spread the teams’ efforts by implementing long-term planned player development rather than short-term victory. Therefore, this study suggests that clarifying a specific game form for the elementary school age would improve player development. The journey from grassroots initiatives to a nationwide movement underscores the enduring influence of a game form that considers the cohesive, athlete-centered approach associated with their society.

Keywords:

• elementary school age
• developmental stage
• top-down
• national federation
• German handball

1. Introduction

Player development can be haphazard and give rise to “accidental champions” or be planned, systematic, and developmentally-appropriate (Balyi et al., 2013a). For long-term effective player development, rather than short-term success, it is crucial to incorporate physical activity and sports as vital elements of play rather than the same rule-based games of adults (Balyi et al., 2013b). Considering that “children are not miniature adults” (Burdi et al., 1969), children in sports should be provided with games and practices in different formats and contents from those of adults. These factors indicate that coaches must acquire specific knowledge and skills for elementary school-aged children to provide optimal sports coaching skills. However, coaches lack the knowledge and skills necessary for coaching, and irrational training practices can lead to burnout and overuse in children (Ministry of education, culture, sports, science, and technology, 2023).

2. A chronology of player development activities in German handball

Germany’s national men’s team, a country that successfully developed international standards (Schorer et al., 2012), won the World Handball Championship in 1978 but failed to qualify for subsequent international tournaments. The teams’ poor performance in international competitions triggered the implementation of a consistent coaching concept in 1988, aiming for long-term player development (Wilke, 2023). While the precise immediate trigger for this implementation is uncertain, several factors have contributed to its need. Among these factors is the observed decline in the number of junior teams, and some studies even forecasted a broader shift in the 1990s towards individual sports, potentially overshadowing team sports (Späte, 1988). Additionally, recommendations to implement mini handball (5 against 5, smaller field, lower goal than adults) for children under 10 years of age were made as early as 1977. However, they were not effectively implemented still in 1988 (Späte, 1988). Another significant factor was the underwhelming performance of the U-21 German national men’s team at the U-21 World Championships in 1989 (Späte, 1990). Furthermore, the lack of variety in training practices, resembling adult training, resulted in children becoming disinterested in handball, leading to a high drop-out rate, particularly among U-18 and U-16 players (Späte, 1992). Consequently, between 1993 and 1996, this concept was further developed as the German handball game conception to develop coaches (Wilke, 2023). The development of this concept was driven by several reasons and historical factors, including the recognition of the following six shortcomings: 1) Insufficient amount of training, 2) Insufficient multi-purpose basic training, 3) Insufficient repertoire of individual techniques and skills in the one-on-one situation (i.e. shooting and passing variations, and feint), 4) Deficiencies in athletics, 5) Poor performance in international competitions, 6) Training of children and youth players were seen as merely derived from adult training goals (Wilke, 2023).

The German national team showed gradual improvements in its performance in competitions and won the World Championship in 2007. The average age of the German national team players at that time was 27.4 years. The consistent player development program gave rise to six players aged 22–23 years (Wilke, 2023). However, the German Handball Association (Deutscher handballbund, hereafter referred to as “DHB”) reflected that the game structure and practice for players under 18 years old did not change despite these efforts (Brand et al., 2009). Therefore, in 2002, there was a paradigm shift in the policy in an attempt to change the existing practices by introducing particular rules for youth games. Gradually, the results of the national team showed improvements, the German national team was ranked fourth in the World Championship in 2019. The chronology above can represent the player development led by the DHB by focusing on consistent player development programs developed by the DHB and deployed throughout the country.

Nakayama and Aida (Nakayama & Aida, 2021) clarified the historical evolution of the DHB efforts by shedding light on an official magazine published by the DHB, covering articles over 31 years in U-10 handball between 1988 and 2018. The results show that the evolution of player development in U-10 can be divided into five-year periods, starting in 1988. The first step was to promote “children’s handball” by presenting a child-specific philosophy of handball; that is, the need to encourage the use of a ball suitable for children and to develop their long-term game skills. Next, they established a consistent player development program, applied a mandated game format for practice, and developed attacking skills through practices that the children could enjoy. While these facts provide an overview of the player development led by the DHB, the background and impetus for these activities are more evident.

However, the existing literature lacks specific details regarding the evolution of player development in German handball over the years and how these changes have been implemented. Furthermore, there is insufficient information regarding the impact of specific youth game rules introduced by the DHB in 2002.

3. Significance of interviewing to identify historical transitions

Regarding the meaning of history, there is a distinction between the position that “objective meaning is inherent in the facts themselves” (fact-meaning monism) and “the subject of cognition gives subjective meaning to the facts” (fact-meaning dualism) (Kusudo, 2003). In the former, the objective meaning is “inherent” in the facts, and the meaning is to be “discovered”. In this position of fact-meaning monism, it is believed that “since the meaning of history is inherent in the objective facts themselves, various ways of looking at history are impossible” (Sera, 1983). In contrast, in the dualism of fact-meaning, infinitely various past events are thought to have no meaning. However, they are given historical importance and become “historical facts” only through “subjective selection” based on the value concerns of the perceiving subject. This position can be understood from the assertion of Thernstrom (1971) and Fogel (1975). where strictly objective facts revealed by empirical social research affect the course of history only through the filtering of human subjective consciousness. Hence, interviewing an expert to elucidate the historical evolution of the DHB’s policies and principles within the framework of fact-meaning monism could provide valuable insights. These insights, in turn, can inform and shape player development initiatives across various national sports federations, potentially leading to a renewed approach to developing and nationwide disseminating this philosophy.

4. Previous studies on the efforts of national sports federations

Multiple governing bodies and national federations outside Japan collaborate to provide coach training (Cally & Gearity, 2019). In Japan, the Japan Sport Association conducts sports coach training with national federations and prefectural sports and physical education associations (Japan Sport Association, 2023). The role of the Japanese national federations is to develop specialised coach training for the sport in question and disseminate this philosophy throughout the country (Japan Sports Agency, 2023). This suggests that it would be helpful to clarify the concerted efforts that national federations have implemented toward sports coaches of elementary school-aged children to realise effective, long-term player development.

There have only been a few studies on the efforts of national federations. Nagano et al. (2019) conducted interview surveys with experts involved in the consistent plaer development of the Japanese national federations in handball, volleyball, and soccer. They clarified and compared the process of building consistent player development systems and their driving and hindering factors from an organisational change perspective. Some challenges facing the consistent player development system of the Japan Handball Association (JHA) were identified. For instance, the JHA has not revised its player development program, the philosophy of consistent player development has not been penetrated, and information about training is not organised or visualised. The JHA presented three measures to address these issues: restructuring the program based on objective data, changing how the coaches communicate the new philosophy of development to teams across the country, and creating new venues for discovery and development that bring many people together. Future work will require increasing the number of analysed national federations, examining their commonalities, and developing a pattern for the construction process.

Kuramoto and Suzuki (2013) conducted a literature review on consistent player development in Japanese basketball and soccer, and compared the results to identify issues. This study covers the approach towards consistent player development rather than emphasizing the efforts of national federations.

Violet et al. (2020) identified the processes of stakeholder involvement and matters that facilitated their participation in the development of the sports policy of the French Rugby Association. The triangulation research method was used (Flick, 2011) incorporating different data types by conducting semi-structured interviews with regional and national actors (board members, sports technicians, and office managers), written materials published by the association, and participant observation. Accordingly, leadership in the sports policy process is essential, similar to the results reported by Peng et al (2019)., because the diversity of objectives renders identifying the function of the formulation and scope involved in the impact of sports policy difficult.

Summarizing the above previous studies, national federations are responsible for developing specialised coach training and disseminating their philosophies. Challenges in consistent player development within organisations like the JHA are identified, including the need for program revisions and improved dissemination of development philosophies. Additional studies, such as Nagano et al.‘s (2019) research, examine the driving and hindering factors in building consistent player development systems. Other studies, such as Violet et al.‘s (Viollet et al., 2020) emphasize the importance of stakeholder involvement in sports policy development, highlighting leadership as essential in achieving diverse objectives. These studies encompass player development activities across all age categories up to U-18. However, in certain sports, such as handball in Japan, consistent player development is lacking for each age group (Nakayama & Aida, 2019). Therefore, it is essential to elucidate the specific characteristics of initiatives within each age category.

Consequently, this study aims to clarify the factors that led to changes in policy and content concerning player development for elementary school-aged children as the first crucial stage of player development. To achieve this objective, I interviewed an expert in German children’s handball to elucidate the historical evolution of the DHB’s policies and principles within the framework of fact-meaning monism. These insights can inform and influence player development initiatives across various national sports federations that may lack suitable policies for each youth category, potentially leading to a revitalized approach in developing and disseminating this philosophy nationwide.

5. Methods

5.1. The study participant

Coach A, a member of the DHB, a published author of a handball training magazine, and a former professor at University Z, was selected to be enrolled in this study. Coach A was considered an expert in children’s handball in Germany. She has written numerous coaching books since 1988, founded a magazine about children’s handball in 2012, and has been involved in handball coaching for children and adults. In 2023, DHB introduced Coach A on their website that Coach A has also been involved in various areas with and without an official position at the DHB (no references provided to maintain anonymity): for example, Coach A was a member of the DHB teaching staff for decades, was also a much sought-after speaker in goalkeeper coach training and in further education for coaches and sports teachers; Coach A founded the DHB working group for children, youth and school handball and chaired it for many years; Coach A initiated the popular nationwide children’s handball workshops at the DHB and has constantly lectured there. This study adopts a case study approach (Stake, 2000), where the selection of Coach A in German children’s handball allows for an in-depth examination. It is important to note that Coach A does not need to represent the broader experiences and perspectives of all individuals involved in children’s handball development in Germany.

5.2. Content and methods of the interview survey

A Semi-structured interview was conducted in Germany on 28 November 2018, in a quiet place where the subject and researcher could interact one-on-one. The research questions included attributes, the historical evolution of team handball U-10 in Germany, policies on content and practice methods, and turning points in children’s handball in Germany. All statements were recorded using an IC recorder.

The interviewer was the first author, a qualified handball coach with German Olympic Sports Federation Qualification C, who read all handball training magazines published by the DHB since 1988. The researcher received Goethe-Zertifikat B2, which proves that “one can understand professional discussions in one’s area of expertise”. This guarantees that data collection and analysis of the interview survey results were appropriately conducted (Aida & Sakai, 2008). Before the interview survey, the participant was informed they could refuse to answer the questions. Consent was obtained for the audio recording of the survey and anonymous disclosure of the research results. While explaining the purpose of the study and interview, the researcher attempted to build rapport with the participant (Tsuchiya, 2005).

5.3. The analysis method

The procedure was exclusively carried out in German. First, all interview statements were transcribed verbatim. Second, the verbatim transcripts were read carefully until the interview content was fully understood. Third, the content of the narratives was summarized, respecting the context, so that the semantic content could be recovered. The finished product was used as primary data. After careful reading, parts describing U-10 handball in Germany in the 1990s, the process of the national regulation of special rules for children, the turning point of children’s handball in Germany, a specific policy for children’s handball in practice, and the transformation of practice content and methods for children were extracted and reconstructed as English text. While reconstructing the primary materials as text, measures were implemented to ensure the semantic content was not arbitrarily transformed.

6. Handball in the German U-10 category in the 1990s

In the past, drills were used in children’s practice. Almost all coaches copied the techniques and games used by adults. However, this approach was not well-suited to children’s needs and learning abilities, as detailed in the section “A Specific Policy for Children’s Handball in Practice.” Recognizing the difference between children and adults in their playing abilities and their way of learning, Coach A proposed an alternative approach. Coach A mentioned an example:

Ninety-nine percent (of all 7-year-olds) can not execute jump shoots because children do not have enough jumping power, but previously (even children who had just started playing handball) had to learn to jump shoot. Nevertheless, this was thought to be incorrect.

At that time, in the C license handball coach training programs in Germany, coaches who taught children learned only about adult practices. About this situation, Coach A identified the issues:

Coaches implemented the same practices for both children and adults. However, different methods should be implemented for children’s handball coaches compared with those for adults. This is the background to what was mentioned earlier (copying adult techniques and games and teaching them to children). Children’s handball coaches wanted to know the age and developmentally-appropriate training that they could perform. They have very different characteristics compared to adults in terms of developmental stage, methodology, pedagogy, strategies, and tactics.

Regarding children’s handball in Germany in the 1990s, it can be implied from Coach A’s descriptions “the same as adults” and “copying adults” that the unique concept of children’s handball was not widespread throughout the country then. Furthermore, Coach A was aware of the problems in this situation, which could be implied from her descriptions’ it is wrong’ and “children cannot…”. From this discussion, the 1990s might be the starting point for the shift in German children’s handball policy.

7. The process of the national regulation of special rules for children

Since there are coaches of various ages (14–80 years) in Germany, it was essential to conduct workshops and present materials to spread the coaching philosophy throughout the country. Children cannot play handball like adults but can learn through age and developmentally-appropriate handball games. Therefore, it was decided to implement provisions for children at U-8, U-10, and U-12. The rules are those which, in addition to the competition rules, contain arrangements for conduct and refereeing in competition. These rules and concepts have been published in German handball training magazines, constituting the basic idea underlying children’s handball.

The consistent player development concept has existed since 1992. Therefore, coaches need to implement these guidelines. In 2002, after many revisions, consistency still needed to be prescribed. At that time, the handball training magazine published by DHB already had Coach B (a member of the DHB and the International Handball Federation) wrote about the ”2 × 3 vs. 3‘, where two teams play the ’2 × 3 vs. 3” game with the standard number of players (6 field players and one goalkeeper). In this game, the regular handball court was divided into two halves: one for the players on their team and one for their opponents, with three field players from each team in each half. Playing beyond the centreline was prohibited, and the game was played with a man-to-man defence in either court (Neuhaus, 2016a). In addition, in 2002, the DHB obligated the man-to-man defensive play in U-10 games. Before that, there was a gradual transition with proposals different from adults (ball, goals, rules, and playing methods in attack and defence). Coach A explained the structure of this transition:

First, an idea (as instructed above for example “2 × 3 vs 3” of Coach B’s idea, or man-to-man defensive system) was proposed by an individual or a group. Subsequently, the idea was passed on to individual clubs, and this idea was brought to the attention of the district. Then, it received attention from the regions, states, and DHB. If someone wanted to change something, one must inform the National Federation. However, in the current field of children’s handball, the state association can decide after the DHB.

The concept was performed as the state desired until a consistent player development concept was defined in 2002. Germany is a federal state; therefore, children’s handball was played in each state according to the individual rules for each state. For example, mini-handball, recommended for 6–8-year-olds, has been present for a long time but has yet to be regulated by a state association. This game has a smaller court (20 m × 13 m, adults: 40 m × 20 m) and fewer field players (four players, adults: 6 players), where its rules are different from the standard rules (Schubert & Späte, 2009a). It has been played in Coach A’s state since 1989, but it has changed differently in each state. However, members of the DHB recognized that inconsistent rules in each state were not ideal for consistent player development in Germany (Feldmann, 2001). As a result, the DHB is now responsible for the implementation rules throughout the country. This necessitates effective communication, with the DHB coordinating with state associations, state associations with regional associations, regional associations with district associations, and district associations with individual clubs.

The narrative that new ideas for children’s handball was first “proposed by an individual or a group” suggests that leading figures like Coach A and Coach B across the country in player development attracted the attention of the surrounding coaches in each state. From the story, which stated that the idea “brought to the attention of the district” and then spread to the region, state, and DHB, it can be inferred that it was an environment easy to replicate by coaches of other teams. This could be attributed to the fact that in the area where Coach A belongs to, and in Germany, the league system is often implemented throughout the year (Handball4all, 2023). Compared to the tournament format, all teams played against each other in the league system; therefore, victory or defeat is not determined by chance, and competitive performance must be systematically enhanced (Stiehler et al., 1993). Hence, there was a spread in the number of teams implementing long-term systematic player development efforts rather than training for short-term victories.

At the regional level, it is crucial to implement sports policy while accounting for local factors (culture, history, and demographics) for the people to be aware of the national goals and participate in achieving them (Skille, 2015). However, in Germany, where the state’s authority is strong, it is difficult to understand how the coaches of each state and smaller regional units share their goals. It can be inferred that the plans were shared by Coaches A and B, coaches in their respective states, and smaller regional teams; accordingly, their efforts spread across the country. Furthermore, their ideas might have gained traction in various regions and states through presentations at seminars and participation in tournaments involving teams from different regions. Similarly, from the narrative that it was first “proposed by an individual or a group,” it can be implied that for children’s handball, the origin of any social process must be explored in the internal organisation of the social group (Durkheim, 1978). Moreover, Coach A explained the situation about the late 2010s:

Accordingly, information is provided nowadays in the opposite direction, from the DHB to state associations, and then to regions, districts, and clubs. The same applies to the referees. It is not a fast track but rather a long one. Changing the rules of conduct can be easily performed through the state associations. For example, the Coach A’s district banned dribbling during U-10 games. This is because the consistent player development concept does not mention, “Do not dribble”. Initially, there was a great deal of controversy, but it was very effective since the decision was made. However, there are other possible explanations for this finding. For example, in some states, children play 2 × 3 vs 3 in one half of a game and regular handball in the other half.

8. The turning point for U-10 handball in Germany

The latest consistent player development concept was developed in 2017. “Handball Handbuch 1” (Philippa Sport Verlag), published in 1988, is the standard tool for children’s coaches. This book served as a starting point for strengthening children’s handball skills in Germany. Besides, Coach A talked about the turning point for U-10 Handball in Germany:

Although not prescribed, it became official in 2002 to play active defence in games of the developmental age, especially man-to-man defence at U-10. Previously, it was only a suggestion or recommendation. Therefore, 2002 was a significant turning point for children’s handball in Germany. Moreover, since 2015, the man-to-man defensive play has become mandatory in the game throughout Germany. What has been implemented to develop the players is adapting to the development of the community. Efforts have been exerted to unravel the underlying cause for the poor versatility of children’s sports when they come to clubs. This is because today’s children do not move significantly. Therefore, the athletic characteristics of the children who joined clubs were worse than those who joined clubs 20 or 30 years ago. The same challenge exists in school physical education and needs to be resolved.

The narrative of Coach A states that the special rules for children in U-8, U-10, and U-12 matches were not recommended, but rather mandated; this acted as a turning point for children’s handball in Germany and suggests that the most significant change in children’s handball occurred when a “top-down” decision was made and implemented nationwide. The significance of this shift can be seen as the change from being top-down, with the agreement of many coaches, to all coaches having to work on man-to-man defensive play. As for the steps that led to the top-down measures, they established unique rules to solve problems related to children’s handball in the 1990s. In 2002, it became “official to play active defence in matches in the developmental years”. This shows that individual- and local-level efforts have expanded into actions involving a large organisation such as the DHB. In Germany, the idea that “the local area is the core of democracy” is widespread (Takamatsu, 2022). It can be inferred that the culture spreading from the community to the city and country and the fact that each state association had various decision-making powers due to the state-federal system led to this spread. Coach A’s narrative states that “what I think we did right in player development was to adapt to local development” and that “today’s children do not move significantly” could be interpreted as a natural organic community. The content related to implementing a man-to-man defensive system for players is well-defined. It specifies that players should enhance their physical activity levels by increasing the intensity of their movements when they do not have the ball, particularly within the open space in front of the goal area established by the man-to-man defensive system (Feldmann, 2013). This can be seen as an athlete-centred approach to enhance the players’ development of personal and life skills (Kerr et al., 2018). This can be interpreted as a successful attempt to disseminate ideas throughout the country.

9. A specific policy for children’s handball in practice

Practicing by a game format or competitive format is much more enjoyable for children. Therefore, this should be a central part of practice. However, it is best to perform by a drill format because certainty is required to win handball games. A handball game is controlled according to the skills and techniques the children possess at the time. For example, suppose one has good differentiation skills in applying force when throwing. In that case, one can play and pass it on in cooperation with the other teammates because one can vary the amount of power used when throwing. They must also pass accurately to a moving teammate or a defined position. Learning skills and game implementation were performed in parallel. Coach A gave following examples:

I always trained them, as opposed to the adults, to do something different. Nevertheless, it took considerable effort to change the minds of other coaches. For instance, 6-, 7-, and 8-year-olds have seen how adults play. Moreover, the coaches would teach them to jump-shot or over-arm-shot, as in ”1, 2, 3 (and after three steps) – shot”. This practice does not make sense, because there is no space for the three strides. If an eight-year-old received a ball near the goal area line, (s)he cannot take three strides because of the short distance to the goal area. Accordingly, shooting using the 3-step approach cannot be justified. The coach always says that children must be aware of how far away from the goal area line they are, to shot without stepping on the line. The run-up is then performed in one or two steps.

I started coaching with this idea, but it took a long time before it was transferred to the other surrounding coaches. Nowadays, the coach implements this strategy because all the coaches have learned and understood the foundations of children’s handball. However, it was challenging to convince coaches performing the same drill practices and technical/tactical practices as those for adults to accept this way of thinking. I quickly realised that adult handball, as seen on TV, is not for children. Therefore, games must be set up so children can solve situations using their skills. That is, opponent players, spaces, and rules must adapt to the age and development levels of the children. The game is set as follows: physical mastery, tools and space, rules for cooperative play with teammates, and playing the game.

10. Transformation of practice content and methods

Regarding the shift in content and methods of practice, Coach A said:

The game was controlled by shifting the content from adults to children. The courts and balls were smaller, goals lower, and rules more pedagogically restricted. In addition, today’s children prefer games over practice. If children are asked whether to practice drills or play games, they will probably say games. For example, in board games, instead of learning how to roll dice and count individually or practicing in isolation from the game, children enjoy the game by throwing and advancing their dice. Naturally, the child wanted to perceive the game as a holistic experience. The same is true for handball. This implies that the conditions of opponents, space, and rules must be adapted to the child’s age and developmental stages. For this reason, games must be set up so that children can solve situations using their skills.

From the narrative, “it was challenging to convince coaches who had been practising the same drills and technical/tactical exercises as adults” and “it took a long time,” indicating that it took time to permeate the coaches throughout the country. This could be attributed to the different ideas and mindsets between the different coaches. To encourage the transition from imitating adult training to age and developmentally-appropriate training, Coach A said:

Providing learning materials is needed so that more coaches could better understand what needs to be structured. A handball instruction book for coaches who coach children under 12 years of age, followed this. This allowed the coaches to implement various training sessions, which were essential for them. In addition to certification workshops, the coaches also offer various workshops that do not require exams or certifications to allow people to learn about proper training for children. This is done on a district basis, not centrally, but one must do it with others. However, this can be achieved by publishing instructional books and magazines.

New insights cannot be put into action because they conflict with the ingrained image of what the world is like, which binds people to familiar ways of thinking and acting (Senge, 2020). In this context, the challenges faced in convincing other coaches to adopt age- and developmental-appropriate training methods for children’s handball could be seen as the coach being bound by the idea of implementing miniature versions of the adult games they saw on television or the adult practices they had done as a player in the past. The approaches that successfully overcame such resistance and fostered a mindset shift among coaches were playing in the league system mentioned above and publishing instructional books and magazines. About publishing, Coach A said that those accustomed to traditional drill-based training methods, which is the same as “repetitive practice in the form of drills”, embrace the new approach to “game-based” content and practice methods through the publication of “instructional books and magazines”. In particular, before the 1980s, game- and drill-based training methods were introduced, albeit without specific consideration for different age groups (Boeckh-Behrens & Zieschang, 1980; Vick, 1981a, 1981b). The game-based trainings at that time mainly focused on exercises related to warm-ups and the learning of various movements.

In contrast, drill-based trainings were designed to master predetermined skills and tactics (Vick, 1981c). In 1988, a new approach emerged by introducing age- and developmentally-appropriate training materials (Hinrichs, 1990a). These materials included exercises in game-based trainings for implementing various movements and provided guidance for technical and tactical learning (Hinrichs, 1990b; Späte & Späte, 2008). Accordingly, publishing content that is easy for coaches to use increases the number of coaches who incorporate it in their coaching practice.

Particularly for those under 12-year-old children, emphasizing game-based training is crucial for fostering game-related skills and creativity (Neuhaus, 2016b; Papagiannopoulos et al., 2023). Merely relying on repetitive drills to enhance skills can be counterproductive, as it often fails to maintain motivation or boost perceived competence (Mandigo & Holt, 2000). This traditional, drill-intensive approach can make children feel controlled rather than engaged. In addition, introducing children to modified game versions, instead of starting with monotonous drills, provides them with a contextual framework to learn tactics, skills, and game appreciation. This immediate context helps children understand how their skills apply in real game situations, motivating them to practice and improve their game-playing abilities. However, it is also important to note that players base their in-game actions on movements and skills they have already acquired (Schubert & Späte, 2009b). Learning new movements and skills requires repetition, which is achievable through various training methods, including drills and games (Pabst & Scherbaum, 2018). Therefore, striking a balance between these training approaches is essential.

In Germany, the implementation of special game rules was initially recommended and later mandated to ensure the dissemination of content and practice methods tailored to children’s ages and developmental stages across the nation. Changes such as using a smaller ball and lower goal for elementary school-aged children aim to align with their physical characteristics. The adoption of the man-to-man defensive system serves dual objectives: defensive tactics, which involve tracking oneself, opposing players, and the ball, as well as dispossessing the opponent, and attacking tactics, which focus on creating space by off-ball movement (Feldmann, 2013). Moreover, efforts have been made to clarify this concept using instructional books and magazines.

11. Future player development activities in Japan

This study suggests it would be helpful to clarify contents and methods of practice and a game form specific for elementary school-aged children in Japan to ensure better performance in the early stages of player development in the future. However, simply identifying content for this age group may not be sufficient to transition from a drill-based to a game-based approach in Japan, similar to the challenges faced in Germany. To promote a child-specific philosophy, it is necessary to the JHA should consider publishing its player development program, similar to the consistent player development program in German handball or the Japanese basketball and soccer programs, referred to as “Japan’s Way” (Japan Basketball Association, 2023; Japan Football Association, 2023).

Furthermore, in the Japanese context, disseminating content and methods specific to elementary school-aged children in sports like handball would likely involve a coordinated effort among several key stakeholders: 1) Coaches would be responsible for implementing the content and methods in their training sessions. They would need training and guidance from the JHA to ensure effective delivery. 2) Utilizing various media and communication channels, such as websites, social media, and publications, can help disseminate information to a broader audience, including coaches and parents.

12. Limitation of this study

The findings of this study have to be seen in light of some limitations. First, this study focused on elucidating the roles and contributions of Coaches A, who served as a DHB committee member and a coach. It did not delve into the intricate relationship between state associations and the DHB. Consequently, the study did not explore the coordination and communication processes between state associations and the DHB in implementing changes to rules and practices in children’s handball, despite the DHB representing the ideal path from training handball-enthusiastic children to performance-oriented training of youths and juniors (German handball federation, 2023). Secondly, this research was limited to an expert interview. It did not assess the broader implications for player development in children’s handball, such as a more comprehensive understanding of how the DHB’s policies and principles have evolved and the driving forces behind these policy changes.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science under Grant [No. 22K17691].

Notes on contributors

Saori Nakayama

Saori Nakayama is an assistant professor at the Institute of Health and Sport Sciences at the University of Tsukuba, Japan. Her research interests include sports coaching, human growth and development, and coach development.