Metacognition in listening comprehension: Analyzing strategies and gender differences among Saudi EFL University students

Abstract

This quantitative study explores metacognitive listening comprehension strategies among Saudi EFL students, aiming to identify the most and least utilized strategies and examine potential gender differences. Employing a descriptive research design, data were collected randomly from 204 Saudi male and female university students across various academic levels using the “Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire”. Descriptive statistical analysis, conducted via SPSS, revealed that problem-solving and mental translation were the most frequently employed strategies, indicating proactive identification and resolution of listening challenges and significant reliance on language conversion for comprehension. Planning, evaluation, directed attention, and person knowledge were also utilized, albeit to a lesser extent. Gender analysis indicated no significant differences in strategy utilization, except for problem-solving, where females exhibited a higher propensity. These findings offer insights into the metacognitive strategies prevalent among Saudi EFL students and highlight the need for gender-sensitive pedagogical approaches in EFL instruction.

Keywords:

• EFL
• gender-based differences
• listening comprehension
• metacognitive listening comprehension strategies
• Saudi EFL students

1. Introduction

Listening comprehension transcends the simplistic notion of mere auditory reception, representing a dynamic and intricate process of meaning construction that is pivotal in language learning. This holds particular pertinence for learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), who frequently grapple with distinctive challenges in honing this crucial skill. Despite its acknowledged importance, a prevalent deficiency in the awareness and application of metacognitive listening comprehension strategies (MLCS) often hinders EFL students’ proficiency in this domain (Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010; Vandergrift et al., 2006). MLCS encompasses deliberate cognitive processes, such as monitoring and regulating one’s cognitive activities, to bolster listening comprehension (Vandergrift, 2006). Empirical evidence substantiates the significant positive impact of MLCS on the listening comprehension capabilities of EFL learners (Fayyaz & Kamal, 2014; Sobhani, 2015).

In Saudi Arabia, English language education has emerged as a cornerstone of educational reform initiatives, mirroring the nation’s dedication to global economic integration and the enhancement of international cooperation. Nonetheless, despite a heightened focus on English language proficiency, Saudi EFL students frequently encounter impediments in mastering listening skills. These challenges are partly attributed to the limited linguistic immersion beyond the educational milieu and conventional instructional methodologies that inadequately address listening comprehension.

Moreover, while MLCS offers substantial potential for ameliorating listening skills, the preponderance of research in this area has been conducted beyond the Saudi Arabian context, thereby revealing a pronounced lacuna in the literature and accentuating the necessity for studies tailored to the Saudi EFL landscape. A burgeoning scholarly interest has been observed in recent years concerning the role of metacognition in language learning, particularly in listening comprehension (Al-Shammari, 2020; Alamdari & Bozorgian, 2022). However, scholarly studies on deploying MLCS among Saudi EFL learners remain nascent.

In light of this backdrop, the present research endeavours to scrutinize the employment of MLCS among Saudi EFL students, focusing on elucidating the strategies that most efficaciously augment listening comprehension and assessing whether the use of these strategies significantly diverges due to gender. The attainment of this objective promises to yield insights that could potentially guide the formulation of pedagogical materials and instructional strategies in listening, thereby enriching the extant corpus of literature on the role of metacognition in language education, especially within the Saudi EFL context. To navigate the contours of this research, two principal research questions have been articulated: Which MLCS are most and least employed by Saudi EFL students? Is there a discernible gender-based disparity in using MLCS among the study participants? Given this, the study aspires to illuminate the intricacies of listening comprehension within the EFL framework, proffering insights that may revolutionize pedagogical practices and augment the listening acumen of Saudi EFL learners.

2. Literature review

2.1. English as a foreign language in the Saudi context

The development of EFL instruction in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been closely aligned with its expansive socio-economic ambitions, acknowledging English proficiency as an essential facet of global competence (Alqahtani, 2021; Assulaimani, 2019). As the Kingdom carves its niche in the global arena, English language learning has been elevated to a critical component of educational reform, mirroring its invaluable contribution to academia, commerce, and international diplomacy (Al-Seghayer, 2021; Al-Shehri, 2020). This strategic emphasis is rooted in a cultural ethos that perceives English not solely as a vehicular language but as a catalyst for economic diversification and international integration, resonating with the Kingdom’s Vision 2030 blueprint (Alfallaj, 2020). Notwithstanding this emphasis, the traditional pedagogical approaches within Saudi Arabia have predominantly favoured the literate dimensions of language—reading and writing—to the detriment of oral and aural proficiencies (Alshammari, 2020). Such an imbalance has precipitated a discernible oversight of listening comprehension. This essential linguistic skill is foundational for efficacious language learning, cross-cultural communication, and practical language utilization in real-world contexts ((Alsaleem, 2019). The imperative to reorient the educational focus towards enhancing listening comprehension is highlighted by its critical role in language pedagogy, acting as a primary conduit for linguistic input and a foundational precursor to developing proficient speaking abilities (Al-Shehri, 2020).

In the educational landscape of Saudi Arabia, the import of listening comprehension within the EFL has often been overshadowed by linguistic skills that are more amenable to direct measurement and evaluation (Dabeel, 2023). Nonetheless, the pivotal role of listening comprehension in facilitating language learning and enhancing linguistic proficiency is indisputable. It is a foundational pillar for linguistic evolution, enabling learners to engage with an extensive spectrum of linguistic inputs and fostering intercultural communication (Alkhelaiwi, 2023). The challenges in cultivating this skill among Saudi EFL students are diverse and multifaceted, ranging from a deficit of immersive language encounters—crucial for authentic language learning—to deep-rooted pedagogical practices that have traditionally relegated aural skills to the periphery ((Shehzad et al., 2021). Compounding these obstacles is the scarcity of targeted empirical research on listening comprehension within the Saudi educational framework, a gap that has stymied the development of specialized pedagogical approaches for this vital linguistic facet (Alseadan, 2021). A proactive and strategic response to these challenges transcends academic concerns, representing a pivotal investment in fortifying overall linguistic competence. Such an endeavour arms learners with the essential communicative skills necessary to effectively engage and contribute to the intricate mosaic of an increasingly interconnected global milieu (Otair & Abd Aziz, 2017).

2.2. Listening comprehension

Listening comprehension is a pivotal aspect of EFL instruction, surpassing mere auditory perception. It involves a sophisticated array of cognitive abilities that equip learners to identify critical information, unravel subtle meanings, and infer context from a diverse array of spoken cues (Al-Khresheh, 2020; Goh, 2002; Graham, 2003; Hasan, 2000). Its importance is foundational, anchoring not just language comprehension but also the broader acquisition of communicative competence and intercultural insight (Cao & Lin, 2020; Goh, 2000; Xu & Huang, 2018; Zeng & Goh, 2018).

Mastery in listening comprehension enables EFL students to adeptly engage with the complexities of spoken English, fostering assertive and dynamic involvement in dialogues and discussions (Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016b). It is essential for the internalization of sophisticated vocabulary, the grasp of intricate syntactic constructions, and the emulation of authentic pronunciation patterns. Beyond linguistic proficiency, it also serves as a window into the cultural intricacies of English-speaking communities, broadening learners’ horizons and enhancing their global outlook (Wang & MacIntyre, 2021). In an era marked by global interconnectedness, proficient listening skills are indispensable not only for scholastic achievements but also for meaningful social and cultural assimilation in an increasingly cosmopolitan world.

The pedagogical implications of robust listening comprehension skills are manifold. They serve as a conduit for receiving authentic language input, thereby enhancing learners’ vocabulary reservoir, refining their grasp of grammatical structures, and aiding in accurately pronouncing phonetic elements (Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016b). Moreover, adequate listening comprehension acts as a bridge to cultural literacy, providing students with nuanced insights into the sociolinguistic context of the language, thereby enriching their understanding and appreciation of the cultural tapestry associated with English (Al-Alwan et al., 2013; Rahimirad & Moini, 2015; Wang & MacIntyre, 2021). In essence, developing listening comprehension skills is pivotal for EFL learners as it lays the foundational framework for effective communication and facilitates their integration into real-world linguistic environments.

2.3. Metacognition and listening comprehension

In EFL instruction, incorporating metacognitive strategies for listening comprehension signifies an educational shift towards autonomous learning. These strategies indicate advanced cognitive skills encompassing self-awareness, regulatory control, and deliberate orchestration of one’s learning activities, significantly contributing to academic success (Sato, 2022; Teng, 2020; Vandergrift & Goh, 2012).

By employing metacognitive strategies in EFL learning environments, numerous avenues for enhancing listening comprehension can be explored. Fundamental to the “Directed Attention” strategy is the conscious allocation of cognitive resources to listening-related tasks. Students are required to avoid unnecessary diversions and concentrate carefully on the linguistic elements of spoken English in order to capture crucial auditory information (Ahmadi Safa & Motaghi, 2021; Berne, 2004). Cognitively, the “Mental Translation” strategy acts as a conduit between the native and target languages. Students engage in the cognitive process of mentally translating material from English to Arabic and vice versa. This strategy aids comprehension by establishing parallels between known and novel linguistic frameworks (Goh, 1997; Vandergrift et al., 2006). By utilizing “Person Knowledge,” individuals access their pre-existing repository of information, personal experiences, and convictions. By tying newly acquired auditory information to pre-existing cognitive frameworks, this approach promotes comprehension by strengthening retention and understanding (Du & Man, 2022). A dual-phase approach is utilized by the “Planning and Evaluation” strategy in order to improve listening comprehension. Prior to engaging with listening material, learners establish objectives, formulate strategies, and activate relevant prior knowledge during the planning phase (Vandergrift, 2007). The evaluation phase comprises a post-listening assessment of comprehension, identification of challenges, and reorientation of approaches to ensure ongoing progress (Zhang & Zhang, 2019). Finally, the “Problem-Solving” approach is distinguished by its fluidity, which encourages students to identify and resolve obstacles during the listening procedure actively. By fostering critical thinking and allowing students to generate solutions and adjust their listening strategies at the moment, this method develops a proactive and resilient academic mindset (Liu, 2020; Vandergrift et al., 2006).

Empirical studies affirm the pivotal role of metacognitive strategies in elevating listening comprehension (Goh, 2008; Graham, 2006; Zhang & Zhang, 2013). These studies illuminate how the strategic employment of metacognitive techniques significantly enhances students’ proficiency in parsing, understanding, and assimilating spoken discourse (Chin et al., 2017; Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016a). By facilitating the interpretation of intricate auditory stimuli, metacognitive strategies not only simplify the comprehension process but also engender an active, reflective learning stance, empowering students to tackle linguistic challenges with increased independence and sophistication.

2.4. Gender differences in metacognitive skills

The correlation between gender and metacognitive abilities has been the subject of extensive scholarly studies, influencing various educational environments. Metacognition, which involves the deliberate control and supervision of one’s cognitive activities, is crucial for academic success and acquiring knowledge. Studies have explored the possibility of inherent discrepancies in the utilization of metacognitive abilities between male and female students (Vandergrift & Goh, 2012).

Slavin (1987) and Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1990) led groundbreaking investigations in this field, which uncovered the underlying mechanisms governing gender-specific differences in self-regulated learning and the strategic application of metacognitive strategies. A diverse range of results surfaced, with some research suggesting no significant differences between the genders regarding overall metacognitive awareness (O’Neil & Abedi, 1996). On the contrary, some scholars have suggested that females may have an advantage in metacognitive ability, as evidenced by their increased use of evaluative strategies and reflective capacities in academic pursuits (Liliana & Lavinia, 2011; Vrugt & Oort, 2008). The gender discrepancy was notably conspicuous in the inclination of females towards thorough preparation, attentive supervision, and stringent self-control.

The complexities of this interaction between gender and metacognition were examined in greater detail in domain-specific contexts. In their investigation of the mathematical domain, Desoete and Roeyers (2002) discovered that female students exhibited more extraordinary metacognitive skillfulness than their male counterparts, which translated to superior problem-solving acumen. On the other hand, in the field of scientific education, male students exhibited a preference for employing more advanced metacognitive strategies, which was found to be positively correlated with their academic achievements (Thomas & Gadbois, 2007).

The cultural and pedagogical context significantly influences the formation of these gender-based disparities. Abu-Snoubar (2017) and Altuwairesh (2016) conducted cross-cultural analyses that shed light on the complex terrain of metacognitive skill manifestation. Their research highlights the significant role that societal norms and educational methodologies play in shaping gender-specific learning roles. The advent of digital learning paradigms has significantly enhanced the discussion surrounding gender discrepancies in metacognitive abilities. Extensive research, including that of Nurhayati and Eppang (2023), has examined the gendered intricacies of navigating online learning environments. This has revealed nuanced yet noteworthy variations in utilizing metacognitive strategies and regulatory behaviour.

In language learning, in particular, the discourse surrounding gender differences in metacognitive abilities remains unresolved despite abundant research. The contradictory empirical evidence suggests that although gender disparities may exist, they are intricately connected to many factors, including context-specific factors, cultural subtleties, and the academic environment. Ongoing scholarly examination will be crucial in unravelling the intricacies associated with the gender-metacognition dynamic, thus contributing to advancing pedagogical methodologies and practices as the educational environment continuously changes.

2.5. Previous studies on listening comprehension: a global perspective

The exploration of metacognitive strategies in EFL listening comprehension is a burgeoning field, with a wealth of research underscoring the significant impact of these strategies on learner performance. Esmaeili et al. (2017) highlighted an apparent enhancement in EFL learners’ performance when metacognitive strategies were integrated during academic listening tasks. This improvement was echoed by Zeng and Goh (2018), who noted not only an augmentation in achievement but also a substantial increase in metacognitive awareness through self-regulated learning approaches to extensive listening. The link between strategy utilization and proficiency levels has been robustly established, with a positive correlation consistently observed in numerous studies (Kök, 2018). These investigations have not only illuminated common listening comprehension difficulties faced by learners but have also advocated for adopting practical strategies to overcome these obstacles (Saraswaty, 2018). Advancing this narrative, Mahdavi and Miri (2019) demonstrated the synergistic effect of process-oriented instruction in enhancing both metacognitive awareness and listening comprehension skills.

The use of metacognitive strategies is marked by diversity among learners, with variables such as gender playing a pivotal role. While some studies observed no significant gender disparity in strategy application (Nasim et al., 2022; Sobhani, 2015; Tabeei et al., 2013), others identified a tendency among females to utilize metacognitive strategies more frequently (Fayyaz & Kamal, 2014). Delving into the Iranian EFL undergraduate landscape, Rahimi and Katal (2012) discovered a pronounced emphasis on metacognitive listening comprehension among females and English majors, with non-English majors demonstrating a predilection for mental translation. Ghorbani Nejad and Farvardin (2019) expanded the investigation, elucidating a significant relationship between overall language proficiency, listening-specific vocabulary knowledge, and metacognitive awareness in developing listening comprehension skills.

A closer look at the hierarchy of MLCS reveals interesting trends. Certain studies refrained from gender comparisons (Alhaisoni, 2017; Altuwairesh, 2016), yet they pinpointed a preference for strategies such as “directed attention” and “problem-solving” over others like “person knowledge” and “mental translation”.

The incorporation of metacognitive strategies into EFL instruction has yielded positive outcomes. Robillos and Bustos (2022) accentuated the advantages of explicit instruction and practice in these strategies, recording notable improvements in listening abilities and metacognitive awareness. The beneficial relationship between metacognitive strategies and listening comprehension has been validated in various educational contexts. Nurhayati and Eppang (2023) reported a positive correlation between the employment of metacognitive strategies, such as goal setting and self-monitoring, and enhanced listening comprehension performance. This efficacy extends across proficiency levels and educational stages, benefitting lower-proficiency EFL learners (Milliner & Dimoski, 2021) and senior high school students (Erizandy, 2020).

The exploration of MLCS within the Saudi EFL context and gender-based differences, remains a relatively untapped research avenue, despite the global attention these strategies have garnered. This gap is especially significant considering Saudi Arabia’s current educational emphasis on enhancing language skills, mainly listening comprehension. A focused investigation into the effectiveness and application of these strategies among Saudi EFL learners is imperative, as it could uncover distinct challenges and opportunities unique to this student demographic. Addressing this research gap is crucial for developing tailored instructional approaches and interventions, ensuring they align with the specific cultural and educational needs of Saudi EFL students and effectively advance their listening comprehension capabilities.

3. Research method

This study used a quantitative descriptive research approach commonly used in educational research to analyze relationships and methodically describe phenomena (Creswell, 2014). This design provides accurate measurement, comparison, and generalizability of findings by gathering numerical data and utilizing statistical analysis (Gall et al., 2007). Therefore, quantitative research is beneficial for examining the influence of metacognitive listening methods because it allows for evaluating the link concerning the usage of these strategies and listening comprehension performance among EFL students. Using a quantitative descriptive research methodology in this study allows researchers to assess the metacognitive awareness levels of listening strategies among Saudi EFL students and investigate the relationships between these strategies and their listening comprehension performance.

3.1. Participants

The present study was conducted with a sample of 204 Saudi undergraduate students, both male and female, aged between 19 and 27, who are pursuing their English majors at Northern Border University, Saudi Arabia. These individuals have been consistently engaged in English language education for over 12 years, encompassing their primary and secondary schooling. Despite the diversity in their academic progression, from freshmen to senior years, the participants exhibit homogeneity in their socio-cultural backgrounds and uniformly identify Arabic as their native language. Within the academic domain, English is predominantly employed as the medium of instruction, and the students exhibit a broad spectrum of proficiency levels in the language. As an integral component of their academic trajectory, they have undertaken listening courses, in conjunction with other language skill courses, as mandatory elements of their curriculum. To attain an unbiased cross-section of the target demographic, the study implemented a simple random sampling technique, ensuring equitable representation from the entire populace under consideration (Creswell, 2014). This methodological approach was deliberately selected to minimize potential biases and to enhance the extrapolative potential of the research outcomes to the larger body of Saudi EFL learners (Gall et al., 2007). A robust sample size lends credence to the reliability and broader applicability of the study’s findings. By integrating a diverse cross-section of Saudi EFL undergraduates, the research aspires to yield a nuanced insight into the impact of metacognitive listening strategies on the efficacy of listening comprehension among this demographic. The specific demographic and academic attributes of the sample population are systematically catalogued in Table 1.

Table 1. The characteristics of the research sample

Variables		Frequency	Percentage
Gender	Male	77	37.7%
	Female	127	62.3%
	Total	204	100.0%

3.2. Instrument

“The Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire” (MALQ) developed by Vandergrift et al. (2006) was employed in the present study. The MALQ contains 21 statements, each with a 6-point agreement scale extending from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. These 21 items are divided into five main subscales “Directed Attention”, “Mental Translation”, “Person Knowledge”, “Planning and Evaluation”, and “Problem-solving”. The questionnaire assesses participants’ metacognitive awareness and their reported use of listening strategies during comprehension tasks. The MALQ was selected because of its established validity and reliability in evaluating metacognitive listening methods in EFL students. The questionnaire has been broadly utilized in previous studies studying metacognitive awareness and strategy use in various language learning settings, placing the groundwork for its use in this study. The questionnaire also tackles different aspects of metacognitive listening processes, such as planning, monitoring, assessing, note-taking, summarizing, visualizing, questioning, and self-questioning (Vandergrift et al., 2006). The study used this questionnaire to entirely understand the participants’ metacognitive awareness and use of various strategies during listening comprehension tasks.

A pilot study was conducted with a separate sample of participants, who were not included in the main study, to ensure the clarity of the questionnaire, determine the readability of the questionnaire items, and identify any potential difficulties or ambiguities. Minor changes were made based on input to improve the clarity and readability of the questionnaire.

3.3. Data collection

The data for this research were systematically collected via an online survey facilitated through Google Forms. This digital approach was adopted to ensure a wide-reaching and efficient distribution during the first academic semester of the 2022–2023 academic year. The study occurred in a governmental university in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Participants, comprising students from various academic levels, were provided with the survey link and detailed instructions explicitly outlined at the outset of the questionnaire. This ensured clarity and uniformity in the responses received.

3.4. Data analysis

The data collected in this research were analyzed utilizing the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), which stands as a robust tool for quantitative analysis. Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, frequencies, and t-tests, were computed to encapsulate the participants’ responses to the MALQ concisely. Moreover, correlation coefficients were calculated to evaluate the relationships between different variables, providing insights into the interconnectedness of the strategies employed by participants. Subsequent to this, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) using the Maximum Likelihood Estimation method was conducted to reinforce the construct validity of the questionnaire. The confluence of these statistical methods offers a comprehensive overview of the study’s findings, with detailed results from both the pilot and central studies presented in the ensuing sections.

3.5. Ethical considerations

Ethical integrity was paramount in the execution of this study. Rigorous measures were employed to guarantee participant confidentiality, with all data anonymized to protect personal identities. Informed consent was a critical prerequisite; participants were comprehensively informed about the study’s scope, methodology, and rights, including voluntary participation and the freedom to withdraw at any stage. Prior to initiating the data collection, the research protocol was subjected to an exhaustive ethical review process, securing the necessary clearances from the relevant institutional ethical committees. This step was instrumental in validating the ethical soundness and credibility of the research.

4. Results

This section presents the research findings, initially focusing on the pilot study’s results, which were instrumental in verifying the reliability and validity of the instruments employed. Upon establishing this foundational groundwork, the narrative shifts to the main study’s findings, offering a comprehensive analysis of the MLCS utilized by Saudi EFL students. In addition, this section delves into the nuances of gender differences in applying these strategies.

4.1. Results of the pilot study

To establish the reliability and validity of the research instrument, a preliminary pilot study was conducted with a cohort of 27 students, who were subsequently excluded from the main study sample. Post-pilot, the questionnaire underwent a rigorous verification process to solidify the construct validity indicators of its items, incorporating adjustments suggested by expert reviewers. Subsequently, correlation coefficients were computed to gauge the relationship between individual item scores and the total scores for their respective dimensions, ensuring a coherent alignment within the questionnaire’s structure. These correlation coefficients, indicative of the questionnaire’s internal consistency, are systematically tabulated in Table 2.

Table 2. Inter-item and item-total correlations

‘Directed attention’		‘Mental translation’		‘Person knowledge’		‘Planning and evaluation’		‘Problem-solving’
Items	Correlation	Items	Correlation	Items	Correlation	Items	Correlation	Items	Correlation
2	.703**	4	.756**	3	.735**	1	.770**	5	.634**
6	.715**	11	.687**	8	.713**	10	.780**	7	.842**
12	.733**	18	.697**	15	.769**	14	.722**	9	.754**
16	.663**	-	-	-	-	20	.706**	13	.783**
						21	.813**	17	.752**
-	-	-	-	-	-	-		19	.745**

**sig (α = 0:01) *sig (α = 0:05).

Table 2 above demonstrates that the correlation coefficients are notably high and statistically significant at a significance level of α = 0.01.This finding indicates a strong internal consistency between each dimension of the research instrument and its corresponding items. Consequently, the table serves as a strong indicator of the instrument’s reliability and validity in measuring the intended constructs.

CFA was performed using the Maximum Likelihood Estimation method to strengthen the construct validity of the questionnaire. It was assumed that there are five latent factors underlying metacognitive listening comprehension strategies. Figure 1 illustrates the standardized regression weights of the scale items on the latent factors.

Figure 1. Mean scores of MLCS.

It is observed from Figure 2 that the standardized regression weights of the items on all factors were statistically significant at a significance level of 0.01. This designates that the scale possesses good construct validity, as the items demonstrate strong relationships with their respective latent factors. Moreover, the reliability of the questionnaire was evaluated by computing Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. The results are depicted in Table 3 below.

Figure 2. Confirmatory Factor analysis model for the measurement of MLCS.

Table 3. Cronbach’s alpha reliability analysis

Factors	Items No	Cronbach’s alpha
‘Directed attention’	4	0.772
‘Mental translation’	3	0.743
‘Person knowledge’	3	0.734
‘Planning and evaluation’	5	0.781
‘Problem-solving’	6	0.787
Overall	21	0.825

The data provided in Table 3 reveals that the overall reliability coefficient of the questionnaire was found to be 0.825. Furthermore, the internal consistency reliability indices, assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, ranged from 0.734 to 0.787 for the different dimensions of the questionnaire. All of these values surpass the minimum acceptable threshold of 0.6, demonstrating a high level of reliability for the questionnaire. Consequently, it can be inferred that the questionnaire demonstrates strong stability and is well-suited for implementation within the study’s sample.

4.2. Results of the main study

To address the first research question concerning the utilization of MLCS among Saudi EFL students, a comprehensive analysis was conducted by computing the means and standard deviations for each dimension of the questionnaire. These dimensions, namely “Directed Attention”, “Mental Translation”, “Person Knowledge”, “Planning and Evaluation”, and “Problem-solving”, assess the various strategies employed. Table 4 illustrates the ranking of questionnaire dimensions, organized in descending order based on their respective means.

Table 4. Descriptive statistics for MLCS

Factors	No. of items	Mean	St.d	Rank
Problem-solving	6	4.28	1.33	1
Mental translation	3	4.17	1.38	2
Planning and evaluation	5	4.14	1.28	3
Directed attention	4	4.06	1.28	4
Person knowledge	3	3.87	1.32	5
Overall	21	4.13	1.22

The data presented in the preceding table offers a nuanced understanding of the metacognitive strategies employed by Saudi EFL students, delineating a clear hierarchy in their utilization. At the apex of this hierarchy is the “Problem-solving” strategy, which commands the highest frequency of use, as evidenced by its robust average score of 4.28. This strategy’s pre-eminence underscores the students’ proactive approach to overcoming obstacles in the listening process. Trailing closely is the “Mental Translation” strategy, clinching the second rank with a noteworthy average score of 4.17, indicating a significant reliance on cognitive translation between languages to facilitate comprehension. The “Planning and Evaluation” strategy, integral to the preparatory and reflective phases of listening comprehension, garners the third position with a solid average score of 4.14. The fourth slot is occupied by the “Directed Attention” strategy, with an average score of 4.06, reflecting the students’ conscious efforts to focus on listening material and minimize distractions. Finally, the “Person Knowledge” strategy, which leverages personal experience and prior knowledge, ranks fifth with an average score of 3.87, suggesting its lesser but still notable utilization in the comprehension process. The hierarchical ordering and relative utilization of these strategies are visually encapsulated in Figure 2, offering a clear and illustrative representation of the findings.

To address the second research question regarding prospective gender differences in MLCS, the means and standard deviations for each dimension and an overall questionnaire score have been determined. These calculations were performed with data from the study’s sample and the gender variable taken into account. The significance of differences between means was then evaluated using a t-test for independent samples. Table 5 depicts the outcomes of this analysis as illustrated by the obtained results.

Table 5. Gender disparities in strategy utilization

Factors	Gender	Mean	SD	DF	T	Sig
‘Directed attention’	Male	3.86	0.99	202	−1.688	0.093
	Female	4.17	1.41
‘Mental translation’	Male	3.99	1.09	202	−1.425	0.156
	Female	4.28	1.53
‘Person knowledge’	Male	3.86	1.06	202	−0.116	0.908
	Female	3.88	1.46
‘Planning and evaluation’	Male	3.95	0.95	202	−1.697	0.091
	Female	4.26	1.43
‘Problem-solving’	Male	3.97	1.03	202	−2.632	0.009*
	Female	4.47	1.45
Overall	Male	3.93	0.92	202	−1.813	0.071
	Female	4.25	1.37

*is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 5 delineates the impact of gender on the utilization of metacognitive strategies among the study’s participants. Employing a rigorous statistical analysis with a significance threshold of 0.05, the findings unveil a notable uniformity in the usage of “Directed Attention”, “Mental Translation”, “Person Knowledge”, and “Planning and Evaluation” strategies across genders. This consistency extends to their aggregate scores as well, suggesting an equitable metacognitive engagement between male and female participants in their listening comprehension endeavours.

In stark contrast, the data of the “Problem-solving” strategy unfolds a different narrative. Here, the statistical examination uncovers a discernible gender discrepancy, with female participants exhibiting a markedly higher inclination towards this strategy, validated by the established significance level. This tendency of female learners to frequently engage in problem-solving manoeuvres points to a potentially more active and strategic stance in confronting listening comprehension hurdles. The insights rendered by Table 5 not only shed light on the intricate interplay of gender with metacognitive strategy employment but also signal a compelling avenue for future educational research and pedagogical refinement. Finally, Appendix 1 at the end of this paper presents a comprehensive table that provides a full descriptive statistical analysis of all items, facilitating an in-depth understanding of the data.

5. Discussion

Within Saudi EFL education, “problem-solving” has emerged as the favoured approach, as indicated by its highest average score of 4.28, which directly addresses the central inquiry of the research. The significant emphasis on problem-solving techniques underscores the proactive involvement of the students in addressing barriers that hinder their ability to comprehend what is being heard. When listening, problem-solving is a complex cognitive process that entails intricate tasks, including summarizing content, predicting outcomes, and drawing inferences (Sato, 2022). The considerable esteem in which Saudi EFL students hold this approach indicates a pedagogical milieu that not only appreciates but actively advocates for the cultivation of problem-solving capabilities to surmount obstacles and enhance understanding of listening materials.

The prodigious implementation of problem-solving methodologies by these students is probably reflective of the prevailing pedagogical trends observed in Saudi EFL classrooms. Within these academic settings, it is customary to motivate students to actively interact with English language resources by employing rigorous examinations and exercises that demand critical thinking. This cultivates an inherent propensity for employing efficient problem-solving strategies. The results of this research align with the conclusions drawn by Nasim et al. (2022), who similarly identified “problem-solving” as a strategy that EFL learners employed to a moderate degree. Based on these observations, the pedagogical approaches commonly used in Saudi EFL classrooms, prioritizing active participation and analytical reasoning, play a crucial role in fostering students’ aptitude for resolving issues. This finding provides an opportunity for instructors to strategically integrate structured problem-solving exercises into listening comprehension exercises, which could potentially increase the effectiveness of this approach and, as a result, improve the outcomes of listening comprehension for Saudi EFL students. Thus, the importance of problem-solving in learning a language is emphasized, which reflects the efficacy of more extensive educational methodologies in the field of language instruction.

The strategic utilization of “mental translation” has been prevalent among Saudi EFL students, attaining the second-highest average score of 4.17. Al-Alwan et al. (2013) describe this cognitive strategy as the internal conversion of linguistic information from the target language, English, to the learner’s native tongue, Arabic, or vice versa. The significant dependence on this method indicates that it has been widely implemented as a crucial intermediary to overcome language barriers and enhance understanding. This trend, which is not merely a matter of habituation, demonstrates a fundamental recognition of the effectiveness of mental translation in improving comprehension of listening English material. The inclination towards mental translation could potentially indicate the linguistic environment in which these students are immersed, in which Arabic dominates daily interactions. As a result, they may be compelled to transition to English for academic purposes mentally.

However, the widespread utilization of mental translation provokes a critical examination of the prevailing pedagogical methods in Saudi EFL classrooms. While mental translation can be an advantageous initial technique for beginners, prolonged use by students suggests a possible reliance on it, which may hinder the development of direct comprehension abilities in the target language. This inclination indicates a fundamental deficiency in pedagogical approaches that might insufficiently foster or develop skills related to direct English comprehension. This disclosure gives teachers a critical moment to reflect and possibly reevaluate their pedagogical approaches. Enhancing students’ listening comprehension abilities could be achieved by fostering an academic environment that promotes direct interaction with English rather than excessively emphasizing translational reliance. This transformative change in teaching methodology holds the potential to cultivate a more profound and innate fear of language, thereby more effectively preparing pupils for genuine English interactions in the international sphere.

Employing the “planning and evaluation” strategy has become a prominent instrument in the repertoire of Saudi EFL students, as evidenced by its noteworthy mean score of 4.14, which places it at the third rank in the hierarchy of strategy implementation. A two-part procedure distinguishes this strategic method: first, individuals engage in a stage of thorough preparation; then, they proceed to a stage of self-reflection and assessment. In the planning phase, students establish clear and specific goals, strategize their approach, and draw upon pertinent prior knowledge. Following the listening activity, the evaluation phase begins, during which students engage in critical self-assessment of their comprehension, recognize obstacles they have encountered, and subsequently modify their approaches to learning. The elevated score associated with this approach signifies that Saudi EFL learners are cognizant of the critical significance of self-evaluation and preparation in efficiently mastering the terrain of aural comprehension. This resonates with the observations of Vandergrift (2007), who recognizes the significance of planning and evaluation strategies in enhancing metacognitive awareness.

A more comprehensive educational philosophy that values metacognitive practices is reflected in the significance attributed to the “planning and evaluation” approach in the Saudi EFL context. Within this academic environment, students are not passive observers but are instead encouraged to take an active and independent role in their learning journeys. The metacognitive focus, distinguished by an elevated consciousness and control over one’s cognitive processes, is crucial because it enables students to actively participate in the subject matter and consistently improve their learning strategies. The strategy’s high score underscores the perceived significance it possesses in enhancing proficient listening comprehension. The data indicates that Saudi EFL students actively participate in learning by strategically organizing their studies and conducting thorough self-evaluations. Adopting this proactive approach aligns with contemporary pedagogical principles that emphasize the significance of learner autonomy and metacognitive engagement in language learning.

The “Directed attention” strategy is a significant component of the Saudi EFL students’ listening repertoire, attaining the fourth position with an average score of 4.06. This method involves an intentional engagement with listening materials while concurrently striving to mitigate extraneous distractions (Cao & Lin, 2020). While its score falls slightly short of the highest-performing strategies, Saudi EFL students recognize the critical significance of concentrated attention when comprehending spoken language. They demonstrate a heightened consciousness regarding the numerous distractions that have the potential to hinder their listening comprehension. Through active engagement in the listening task, students significantly improve their ability to comprehend and assimilate spoken material. The prevalence of “Directed attention” among Saudi EFL students could serve as an indicator of an educational environment that is becoming increasingly aware of the intricate aspects of listening comprehension. In a time characterized by constant disruptions caused by digital technology, sustaining focus is becoming progressively acknowledged as an essential competency. The prioritization of directed attention in educational environments is probably part of a more considerable pedagogical effort to equip students with the cognitive abilities required to succeed in the face of an overwhelming number of potential distractions. By placing a deliberate emphasis on cultivating sustained attention, not only are listening comprehension abilities improved, but also a foundation is established for a critical skill that transcends the boundaries of language learning—one that empowers students to navigate the complexities of the contemporary attention economy deftly.

The “Person knowledge” strategy, which Saudi EFL students employ, occupies the fifth tier on the continuum of strategies, as indicated by its mean score of 3.87. This strategy relies on utilizing personal beliefs, life experiences, and one’s reservoir of knowledge as a supplementary framework to facilitate comprehension (Vandergrift & Goh, 2012). While its prevalence may be slightly lower than the other strategies, it nonetheless signifies a proclivity among Saudi EFL students to utilize their innate cognitive and experiential capabilities to strengthen their understanding of the material being listened to. The obtained score suggests that although students acknowledge the beneficial impact of personal knowledge on comprehension, its dependence may not be as significant as that of the other strategies being assessed. The relative unimportance of “Person knowledge” in the arsenal of strategies may provide insight into the cognitive tendencies of Saudi EFL students. This implies a preference for employing dynamic, problem-solving, and evaluative approaches rather than relying passively on pre-existing knowledge repositories. This tendency could potentially be indicative of an academic environment that prioritizes the acquisition of knowledge through active engagement and critical analysis rather than the mere recall of facts. The results suggest that educators may have an opportunity to encourage the incorporation of students ’ personal experiences and knowledge into listening comprehension exercises. By adopting this pedagogical approach, students may be able to form more profound and individualized associations with the subject matter, which may ultimately enhance their understanding and retention of the language.

The study’s findings reveal a hierarchy of MLCS among Saudi EFL students, with “problem-solving” at the apex, succeeded sequentially by “mental translation”, “planning and evaluation”, “directed attention”, and “person knowledge”. This stratification highlights a preference for employing problem-solving strategies as the primary method to overcome difficulties in listening, in addition to utilizing mental translation to improve comprehension and a structured approach that involves planning, evaluating, and maintaining focus. The limited dependence on “person knowledge” indicates that it is acknowledged but utilized less frequently than alternative approaches. These observations align with previous research, confirming the crucial significance of these techniques in enhancing listening comprehension in EFL settings (Al-Alwan et al., 2013; Goh, 2008; Vandergrift, 2007; Zhang & Zhang, 2019).

The probe concerning the second research, which centred on possible disparities in gender, produced a thought-provoking realization. The thorough statistical examination of the data revealed no statistically significant differences observed in the implementation of “Directed Attention,” “Mental Translation,” “Person Knowledge,” and “Planning and Evaluation” strategies among male and female participants. The aforementioned pattern of consistency was also evident in the cumulative scores, underscoring that the utilization of metacognitive listening comprehension strategies among the Saudi EFL students surveyed was not influenced by gender. These results are consistent with the conclusions reached in similar academic studies. For example, the studies conducted by Sobhani (2015) and Tabeei et al. (2013) found no significant disparities in implementing these gender-based strategies. Simultaneously, the research conducted by Fayyaz and Kamal (2014) supported this trend, confirming that gender has no substantial impact on the choice or effectiveness of metacognitive techniques of listening comprehension among Saudi EFL students. The agreement observed in multiple studies not only enhances the validity of the current research findings but also adds to the growing body of academic evidence suggesting that gender may not have a significant impact on the metacognitive approach to listening comprehension in EFL classrooms.

However, a notable exception regarding the “Problem-Solving” strategy emerged. The responses of the study participants regarding the utilization of the “Problem-Solving” strategy revealed gender-based differences. Importantly, these differences were found to favour female participants, indicating that females were more likely than males to employ this particular strategy. Several factors can explain the statistically significant differences between male and female participants’ “Problem-Solving” strategy usage. Firstly, research has repeatedly demonstrated gender differences in cognitive and metacognitive abilities (Tabeei et al., 2013). Females might typically demonstrate superior problem-solving and strategic reasoning skills, which may explain their greater propensity to employ the “Problem-Solving” strategy in this study. Second, social and cultural factors contribute to the formation of gender differences in metacognitive strategies. Females may be encouraged to develop and employ problem-solving skills more effectively by societal expectations and educational environments. Gender roles and norms can also influence the development of specific cognitive and metacognitive abilities, with females frequently encouraged to engage in collaborative problem-solving strategies.

Furthermore, individual differences and preferences within each gender group must be taken into account. While the overall statistical findings indicate a gender difference in the use of the “Problem-Solving” strategy that favours females, it is essential to note that not all females excel at problem-solving, and there may be males who use this strategy effectively. Therefore, the observed gender difference should not be generalized to all members of each gender category.

6. Implications

Based on the main findings of this study, some implications can be drawn. The finding that female learners prefer “Problem-Solving” procedures emphasizes the need for teachers to create a learning environment favourable to such methods. This can be realized by designing and implementing interactive listening tasks that present students with complex comprehension issues, catalyzing problem-solving and strategic reasoning. The high reliance on “Mental Translation” highlights an opportunity for teachers to gradually guide students towards direct English comprehension, reducing the need for translation as linguistic proficiency improves. Furthermore, learners’ engagement with “Planning and Evaluation” strategies implies a metacognitive awareness, which teachers can enhance by incorporating formal metacognitive training into the curriculum. Students would be incentivized to actively participate in the planning, monitoring, and evaluating of their understanding processes under this approach.

The curriculum must be designed to include listening tasks that not only encourage the use of various metacognitive methods but also promote the equitable development of all aspects of listening comprehension abilities. Instructional materials should be carefully designed to encourage the use of “Person Knowledge” drawing on students’ pre-existing cognitive structures and experiential caches to form deeper connections with the language. Furthermore, in an age of digital distractions, the curriculum must include aspects that strengthen the formation of focused attention, preparing students to navigate an environment rife with possible interruptions.

Although the study reveals that gender has little influence on adopting most metacognitive techniques, the distinction identified in the “Problem-Solving” method highlights the importance of gender-sensitive pedagogical approaches. Teachers should be aware of these slight differences and endeavour to provide fair opportunities for both male and female learners to acquire a full array of metacognitive techniques.

Professional development for EFL teachers should emphasize the critical significance of metacognitive methods in improving listening comprehension. Such programmes should provide teachers with the necessary skills to identify and cultivate their students’ metacognitive capacities while adjusting their teaching techniques to meet their students’ changing needs. By certifying that educators have a thorough understanding of metacognitive strategy training, the quality of EFL teaching can be significantly improved, resulting in more effective and impactful learning experiences.

7. Limitations and recommendations for further research

The study has certain limitations that need to be addressed in future research. Firstly, relying on questionnaires as the sole data collection method could introduce biases and fail to capture the depth of metacognitive processes. Future studies should adopt a mixed-methods approach, incorporating observations and interviews to provide a richer, more nuanced understanding of these processes. Secondly, random sampling may not adequately represent the diverse Saudi EFL student population. Future research should consider purposive sampling to ensure a more representative and targeted participant selection based on specific characteristics such as language proficiency and motivation. Furthermore, the research would benefit from a longitudinal design to assess the long-term effects of metacognitive strategy instruction on listening comprehension, providing insights into the sustainability and transferability of these strategies. Lastly, expanding the scope to include variables like motivation, language proficiency, and task characteristics would offer a more comprehensive view of the factors influencing metacognitive strategy use and listening comprehension, thus contributing to a more robust understanding of the dynamics in the Saudi EFL context.

8. Conclusion

This study aimed to identify Saudi EFL students’ metacognitive listening comprehension strategies and explore potential gender differences in strategy utilization. The findings indicate that “problem-solving” is the most utilized strategy among Saudi EFL students, followed by “mental translation”, “planning and evaluation”, “directed attention”, and “person knowledge”. These results suggest that Saudi EFL students prioritize problem-solving, utilize mental translation to bridge language gaps, plan and evaluate, maintain focused attention, and draw upon personal knowledge to enhance comprehension.

Furthermore, while no statistically significant differences were found in utilizing most gender-based strategies, a significant difference was observed in favour of female participants concerning the “Problem-Solving” strategy. This suggests that females are more likely to employ this particular strategy than their male counterparts. These differences may be attributed to established gender disparities in cognitive and metacognitive skills, societal and cultural influences, and individual variations.

These findings contribute to the existing research on metacognitive listening comprehension strategies and provide insights into the preferences and tendencies of Saudi EFL students. Understanding these strategies and gender differences can inform language instructors and curriculum developers in designing practical instructional approaches tailored to students’ cognitive strengths, promoting successful listening comprehension outcomes. Further research is warranted to expand our knowledge and comprehension of these strategies and their implications for language learning.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Appendix 1

Table

Strategy	Sub Scale	Total		Female		Male
		Std.	Mean	Std.	Mean	Std.	Mean
1. Before I start to listen, I have a plan in my head for how I am going to listen.	PE	1.65	4.08	1.66	4.26	1.58	3.79
2. I focus harder on the text when I have trouble understanding.	DA	1.62	4.37	1.68	4.60	1.45	3.99
3. I find that listening in ESP is more difficult than reading, speaking, or writing in ESP.	PK	1.64	3.80	1.78	3.78	1.40	3.84
4. I translate in my head as I listen.	MT	1.68	4.18	1.74	4.44	1.48	3.75
5. I use the words I understand to guess the meaning of the words I don’t understand.	PS	1.58	4.31	1.68	4.48	1.39	4.04
6. When my mind wanders, I recover my concentration right away.	DA	1.59	4.04	1.69	4.18	1.40	3.81
7. As I listen, I compare what I understand with what I know about the topic.	PS	1.56	4.25	1.68	4.42	1.31	3.96
8. I feel that listening comprehension in ESP is a challenge for me.	PK	1.55	3.96	1.63	4.05	1.40	3.81
9. I use my experience and knowledge to help me understand.	PS	1.51	4.43	1.58	4.64	1.33	4.08
10. Before listening, I think of similar texts that I may have listened to.	PE	1.57	3.99	1.66	4.04	1.41	3.90
11. I translate keywords as I listen.	MT	1.55	4.30	1.65	4.40	1.37	4.14
12. I try to get back on track when I lose concentration.	DA	1.66	4.19	1.64	4.49	1.58	3.70
13. As I listen, I quickly adjust my interpretation if I realize that it is not correct.	PS	1.60	4.19	1.63	4.35	1.52	3.94
14. After listening, I think back to how I listened, and about what I might do differently next time.	PE	1.55	4.07	1.59	4.20	1.45	3.86
15. I don’t feel nervous when I listen to ESP.	PK	1.62	3.85	1.70	3.81	1.48	3.92
16. When I have difficulty understanding what I hear, I give up and stop listening.	DA	1.70	3.63	1.88	3.43	1.28	3.96
17. I use the general idea of the text to help me guess the meaning of the words that I don’t understand.	PS	1.53	4.28	1.59	4.52	1.35	3.90
18. I translate word by word, as I listen.	MT	1.63	4.02	1.75	3.98	1.44	4.08
19. When I guess the meaning of a word, I think back to everything else that I have heard, to see if my guess makes sense.	PS	1.53	4.23	1.60	4.41	1.36	3.92
20. As I listen, I periodically ask myself if I am satisfied with my level of comprehension.	PE	1.48	4.25	1.62	4.26	1.20	4.25
21. I have a goal in mind as I listen.	PE	1.53	4.32	1.61	4.54	1.32	3.95