Social capital for sustainable tourism development in Indonesia

Abstract

Sustainable tourism development can utilize the social capital of society to encourage development. The social networks, norms, and trusts the community has built reflect social capital, which will be important for supporting and responding to sustainable tourism. The village is located in Wonosari District, Malang Regency, which is famous for its tourism village potential, namely Bangelan Village. This tourist village uses the community’s potential and natural resources, plantations, and goat farms as tourist attractions. Thus providing good benefits for the village community. This study has the H1 hypothesis: norms, social networks, and trust have a significant influence on social capital, and the H2 hypothesis: the presence of social capital has a significant influence on sustainable tourism. The sample used for this study was the Bangelan Village community, with SEM-PLS (structural equation modeling) data analysis. The study results show that the H1 and H2 hypotheses have significant and positive values. The findings show that social networks, norms, and trusts can form the social capital of the community and play an important role as a driver of sustainable tourism development in Bangelan Tourism Village.

Keywords:

• social capital
• sustainable tourism
• tourism village

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Tourism has the potential to encourage economic growth, environmental sustainability and equitable development in rural areas. Sustainable tourism is a fundamental development paradigm that includes economic, environmental and social dimensions, which has an important role in ensuring the sustainable benefits of tourism. Social capital is defined as a basic component in the development of sustainable tourism in rural areas. Growth in economic, social and cultural aspects is facilitated by society’s social capital which originates from trust, social norms and social networks. Thus, the importance of this research is because the presence of social capital significantly influences community attitudes and support for sustainable tourism. This research was conducted to examine the relationship between social capital (trust, norms and social networks) in the development of sustainable tourism. There is an optimistic view of community social capital which is expected to be a catalyst for sustainable tourism development in the future.

1. Introduction

Tourism is one of the development options that most people want because of the benefits that directly or indirectly contribute to increased welfare (Moscardo et al., 2017). According to UNWTO (2013) Development through tourism can encourage economic development, environmental sustainability, and inclusive development. Particularly in rural areas, many adopt tourism practices for alternative development strategies (Latkova & Vogt, 2012; Park et al., 2015). However, concerns about the benefits received from tourism have motivated much research on sustainable tourism development (Dredge & Jamal, 2015; Moscardo et al., 2017).

An important concept in development and tourism that has the goal of providing a good environmental impact, increasing economic and social sustainability is sustainable tourism (Streimikiene et al., 2020). Apart from that, sustainable practices and incorporates a preservation of environmental elements into social, economic, and cultural (Sari et al., 2023). This sustainable tourism can grow because of issues in tourism development such as the impact of environmental damage, social society, and important issues regarding the loss of traditional culture. Therefore, in line with this, the theoretical development of sustainable tourism is seen as one of the solutions to problems that provide positive changes through sustainable ideas. Sustainable tourism acts as a solution for tourism that provides positive benefits (Hashemkhani Zolfani et al., 2015).

The concept of sustainable tourism is very broad and in some studies complicated to define precisely because it involves various complex aspects. Several studies that discuss sustainable tourism, such as Butler’s (1999) research, discuss the development of sustainable tourism, addressing several conflicting definitions. In Butler’s research, he emphasizes the need to distinguish between the principles of sustainable tourism and sustainable development, where it is important to determine what influences sustainability and how it can be achieved. A multi-sectoral approach is essential because it requires more than simply estimating the direct impacts of tourism on the physical and human environment of tourist destinations. Then, to ensure its implementation and success, all stakeholders must be willing to become participants in the process of realizing sustainable tourism (Butler, 1999). In research Desbiolles et al (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2020) defines tourism as a form of maintaining the survival of a region in the long term. Sustainable tourism is described as tourism development developed in an area that will remain sustainable for an indefinite period of time and does not cause a decline in the function of the surrounding environment and provides prosperity from the tourism activity.

A number of studies have different views in defining sustainable tourism such as opinions Sharpley (2000) in research Pan et al. (2018), as tourism with all economic, social and environmental balance in the long term to meet all tourist needs while still providing development opportunities for the future in a sustainable manner. It’s the same in research Sgroi (2020), which defines sustainable tourism as a tool to encourage effective management of natural resources for current and future generations. On the other hand, in research Grilli et al. (2021), tries to see tourism development as important for economic growth in developing countries, and its implementation involves the exchange of natural ecosystem services, social identity and culture. Tourists tend to be interested in experiential aspects of the local resources and natural environments of developing countries. Tourism that meets the needs of current tourists and provides opportunities for the future for local communities as hosts (Cristiano et al., 2020). In line with this, in research Sobaih et al. (2021), also stated that the existence of planned resilience to the impacts of tourism development will contribute to adaptive resilience in realizing sustainable tourism. Adaptive resilience is one component of sustainability, which is defined as the ability of tourism to absorb and adapt to social, economic and environmental disturbances in a sustainable system. Adaptive resilience is an interrelated component to realize sustainable tourism development (Holladay, 2018).

Sustainable tourism development has also been viewed over the years with the main problems in sustainable tourism being determined by the basis or principles of sustainability (Buckley, 2012). Liu (2003) equates the sustainable tourism system perspective with an approach that views sustainability as an effort to optimize and perfect all elements in the development system. Liu also recommends an interdisciplinary approach in researching sustainable tourism by developing more coherent theories, techniques, beliefs and attitudes to research. However, in terms of improving the economy, although pro-poor tourism advocates agree with the goals of sustainable tourism that provide economic improvement, the overall goal is not to reduce poverty. Instead, a more appropriate approach than designing definitions is to assess tourism activities based on whether they meet sustainability criteria (Mowforth & Munt, 2016). Providing tourist needs by local communities provides opportunities for sustainable tourism development in the future. Sustainable tourism development includes managing resources, social and economic factors, while protecting biodiversity and maintaining traditional culture (An & Alarcón, 2020). As for describing sustainable tourism, there are several factors that include environmental, socio-cultural and economic elements. These factors include resource preservation, economic planning, community resources, cultural awareness, environmental education, and stakeholder inclusion (Khalid et al., 2019).

Sustainable tourism has become an important focus in Indonesia in recent years. This is supported by great potential in the tourism industry because of its natural wealth, cultural diversity and historical heritage. Previous research, one of which was in Bali by Hitchcock and Putra (2007), Iwahara (2016), Sylvine et al. (2019), and Pickel-Chevalier (2017) presented interesting results for a sustainable tourism model in Indonesia. Sustainable tourism is based on social and cultural activities, daily customs, buildings and traditional use of space. Local communities provide all accommodation for tourists and increased tourism can provide income for residents, as well as allowing them to keep their communities alive and their local wisdom preserved. On the other hand, an increase in income is also expected to reduce development inequality in the village (Putri et al., 2023).

Social capital is one of the basic elements in developing sustainable tourism in rural areas (Park et al., 2012). The definition of social capital explained by Putnam (R. Putnam, 1993) describes community norms, social networks, and trusts to encourage community economic, social, and cultural development. In general, social capital is defined as a relationship through social networks because of the similarity of values in society that form capital (Utami, 2020). Social capital can come from social networks which are characterized by the existence of shared values and norms, shared rules and obligations, as well as relationships based on trust and reciprocity (McGehee & Andereck, 2016; Moscardo et al., 2017). Then according to Saher (Saher et al., 2018), norms play an important role in controlling and directing people’s behavior. In addition, trust is very important in life because it can affect the way a person interacts and behaves and plays an important role in various aspects of life, such as social interactions (Santoso, 2020). If the community’s social capital is weak, it will have an impact on the community being less active in participating (Aprilia et al., 2023). Social capital is able to encourage the emergence of coordinated behavior within the community to achieve common goals that lead to cooperation and social cohesion (Wakefield & Poland, 2005).

One of the main areas that discusses community social capital in tourism is regarding how general tourism development utilizes community social capital to encourage development (Sainaghi & Baggio, 2014; Svendsen et al., 2010). According to WTO (1999), tourism has positive social implications on society. Tourism is not only interpreted as an industry, but also as a social force that promotes harmony and understanding among people of various cultures (Mura & Tavakoli, 2012). In line with this, it is emphasized that sustainable tourism development must improve the welfare of local communities and improve social relations among communities (Choi & Sirakaya, 2006; Hall, 1994; Mura & Tavakoli, 2012). Thus, social capital will be important in determining the views and attitudes of the community to respond to support for sustainable tourism (Park et al., 2015).

Many studies explain sustainable tourism that arises as a result of local communities being involved (Diallo et al., 2022; Iqbal et al., 2022; Mohd Rasdi et al., 2022). Some of them, in the research of Iqbal et al (Iqbal et al., 2022) show that community participation plays an important role for sustainable tourism. Putnam (1993), states that community involvement can create reciprocity, facilitate communication, strengthen the flow of information, and provide beneficial cooperation. In this case community involvement can also increase mutual trust (Faedlulloh, 2017), with trust, networks, and norms forming components of social capital (Putnam, 1993). In line with this, research related to social capital and tourism is an interesting research and is mostly carried out in rural areas. Several studies have discussed the importance of social capital in rural life (Kelly et al., 2017; Richmond & Casali, 2022; Rocca & Zielinski, 2022; Talbot & Walker, 2007). These studies provide theoretical insights into the social capital of rural communities. A number of studies have also discussed social capital and sustainable tourism. One of them in the research of Park et al (Park et al., 2012). Park shows the elements of social capital that exist in rural tourism communities, with social capital playing a role in the basic foundation of society to carry out positive cooperation and collaboration to achieve coordinated actions and beneficial success for all sectors, activities, and varied tours. Furthermore, the research by Park et al (Park et al., 2015) also examines social capital and community attitudes towards tourism which affect community satisfaction and in turn affect community support for tourism. However, these studies have not discussed further the social capital that can encourage sustainable tourism. Therefore, this study raises the discussion on the social capital owned by the people of Bangelan Tourism Village to develop sustainable tourism.

In Wonosari District, Malang Regency, Indonesia, there is one of the famous tourist villages, namely Bangelan Tourism Village. This village became a tourist village when it was designated in 2020 as an agricultural tourism village. Then, in December 2022, the status was again updated to Bangelan Tourism Village Agro by the Regent of Malang. This village has a focus on developing nature tourism and potential resources in the village in the form of livestock and coffee plantations. In order to strengthen the role of villages, one of the main concerns nowadays is the development of tourist villages (Augusty et al., 2022). A progressively growing and sustainable tourism village will influence and transform the village (Nugraha et al., 2022). The development of a tourist village can certainly be realized because of the social capital of the community. It is hoped that social capital can be used to encourage sustainable tourism that can provide benefits to the community both economically, socially and environmentally. However, there is a lack of socialization or routine activities from the village government regarding tourism to village communities. So that some people still have minimal knowledge and innovation regarding tourism development. Even though sustainable tourism development will require routine activities or training programs as well as socialization of tourism development so that it can improve the skills and abilities of the community (Arida & Sunarta, 2017). In line with this, social capital will also play an important role in connecting individuals and groups to obtain information (Nur et al., 2020), especially in the development of sustainable tourism. The research conducted will focus on analyzing and looking at the connectedness of norms, social networks, and the trust that society has as a form of social capital. Furthermore, with the existence of social capital, its connection to sustainable tourism is seen through SEM-PLS data analysis. The use of PLS is because it is widely used for research with a theoretical basis that is new or limited, and aims to predict (Nikmatus Sholiha & Salamah, 2015). So that is in accordance with this research considering there is little research on topics that link social capital and sustainable tourism in tourist villages.

2. Literature review

2.1. Tourism village

The application of tourism development in rural areas is a form of tourism village. various forms of components owned by tourist villages such as attractions, supporting facilities, and accommodation are presented in an authentic form and following community traditions (Sidiq & Resnawaty, 2017). The tourism village acts as an asset that is developed from existing resources in the village with all forms of interest in tourists, so that it can be used as a tourism business (Sudibya, 2018). Hadiwijoyo (2012), suggests that tourist villages have the following requirements:

1. Has good accessibility

2. Having objects of attraction such as nature, culture, local food, etc

3. The local community and village officials are very accepting and supportive of tourism villages and tourists who come to their villages

4. A safe village.

5. There are telecommunications, accommodation, and a good workforce

6. Cool village climate

7. Related to places/tourist sites that are widely known by the wider community

The culture and traditions inherent in the local community are an attraction in the tourist village itself. Therefore, in a tourist village the important role of the community has a big influence on development. On the other hand, local people in tourist villages will develop and live side by side with tourist objects as an interconnected system. so that the success and development of a tourist village will depend heavily on the support and acceptance of the community (Sudibya, 2018).

2.2. Social capital

Social capital is generally described by Putnam (1993) as social organization such as norms, social networks, trusts that lead to coordinated actions and community collaboration for shared benefits and interests. Then on the other hand, Fukuyama (Fukuyama, 1995) also argued that social capital is something related to trust which refers to the ability of a community member to be willing to work together in achieving common goals and expectations. Furthermore, the role of social capital is a personal network, in which each member of society can maintain and develop trust with one another.

Bubolz (2001) also tries to interpret that trust is a person’s trust in relying on other people in carrying out the expectations given to that person. So that this trust is the basis for moral behavior that is built and becomes social capital. Social capital and trust that are owned by community members are important to be associated with reciprocity, namely a situation when someone receives something, that person will expect a reply (Mura & Tavakoli, 2012). Social capital exists in the community identified by social networks as well as social values and norms that work within it. Empirically, social capital can help people work together to achieve benefits for all members of society (Lin, 2001). Social capital is formed by norms in society, social networks, and trust (R. D. Putnam, 1993), with each explanation below:

1. Trust, is defined as a basic element of social capital that is fundamental in social life in society. trust exists and influences the way a person communicates and behaves, and plays an important role in various aspects of social life in society (Santoso, 2020).

2. Social networks refers to social relations among people that involve exchanges and cooperation that are mutually beneficial and reciprocal (Saher et al., 2018).

3. Norm, has a meaning as a basic element in addition to social networks and trust to bring up social capital. Norms will be very important for directing and controlling an act committed by each member of society (Saher et al., 2018).

2.3. Sustainable tourism

In two views, sustainable tourism is defined as (1) various economic activities (2) as a component of sustainable development more broadly. In relation to the concept of sustainable tourism, it leads to ecological or ecosystem sustainability, community participation, equality and prosperity. Sustainable tourism as a concept that is continuously developed. So as to meet the needs of the local community and tourists, as well as provide broad opportunities for development in the future. There are several opinions that suggest that the principle of sustainability is very difficult to apply, also applies to tourism because it must pay attention to the balance between resource exploitation and environmental protection as well as socio-culture (Nguyen et al., 2019). Problems that occur as a result of tourism starting from issues of environmental damage, traditional culture, and the economy, encourage a concept of sustainable tourism as a solution.

In the sense of sustainable development, emphasizing on meeting the needs of current and future generations. The concept involves several basic principles such as strategies and plans from both the economic, environmental and social sectors. This development is intended to maintain future productivity, protect the natural environment, protect cultural heritage, and uphold balance and justice. In the early stages of sustainable development, there will be an emphasis on environmental preservation. However, on the other hand, economic and social conditions are equally important aspects for realizing sustainability. Therefore, the definition of sustainability is interpreted as a view of the three main elements including social, environmental and economic which play an important role as a broad system that covers all aspects of life in sustainable development. Sustainable development must be seen as a comprehensive system, such as an environmental system that protects living resources, a social system that seeks to achieve equity, and an economic system that seeks to increase the efficiency of resource use (An & Alarcón, 2020). Based on the development of the theory, sustainable tourism is considered as a solution that uses the concept of sustainability to bring about positive change. Sustainable tourism is capable of playing an important role in finding ways to gain benefits and positive impacts from tourism (Hashemkhani Zolfani et al., 2015). As for describing sustainable tourism in this study, it can be seen from factors such as resource preservation, economic planning, community resources, cultural awareness, environmental education, and stakeholder inclusion (Khalid et al., 2019).

3. Methods

3.1. Research hypotheses

This sub-chapter discusses the hypotheses used in research based on the theory and research background. Putnam (Putnam, 1993) and Coleman and James (1990) argue that trust, norms, and networks that encourage collaboration and cooperation are referred to as social capital (Lyon, 2000). Social capital is a basic resource that is attached to a person to build social relations which are described in networks that can transform these networks into other forms of capital. So that it can be useful to facilitate forms of capital such as the economy or culture in society. Specifically, based on this understanding, social capital is a resource that arises due to the participation of a community member (individual or group) into social networks or structures within the larger society (Bourdieu, 1979). Putnam put forward social capital as a public good owned by the community in a community, country or city. A number of studies have argued that social capital can be very important for the development of tourism through rural communities (Jones, 2005; Macbeth et al., 2004; McGehee et al., 2010; Park et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2011). Social capital has a fundamental role as an element that develops sustainable tourism in rural areas (Park et al., 2012). This research tries to look at social capital in the form of social networks, norms, and trusts in society. then through this, the connection between social capital and sustainable tourism will be seen. Community behavior and responses to tourism will be observed from the role of community social capital in responding to tourism benefits (Park et al., 2015), especially in this research in tourist villages. The hypothesis used in this study are:

H1:

norms, trusts, and social networks have a significant influence on the social capital of society

H2:

Community social capital has a significant influence on sustainable tourism development including resource preservation, economic planning, community resources, cultural awareness, environmental education, and stakeholder inclusion.

The basic capital built in society to achieve sustainable tourism is social capital (Bowles & Gintis, 2002; Macbeth et al., 2004; Park et al., 2012). Measurement of social capital in several studies such as in research Ola and Nur Isiyana Wianti (2020) measuring social capital from bridging and bonding social capital between two ethnic groups in the Wakatobi National Park area, Indonesia. Likewise in research Dahal and Adhikari (2008) which measures social capital from the dimensions of bridging, linking, and bonding social capital for managing collective action in Kalahan Forest Philippines.

On the other hand, several studies also measure social capital from different dimensions, as in research Lyon (Lyon, 2000), Bjørnskov (2006), and Singgalen (2020) which looks at social capital from the dimensions of trust, norms and social networks. In line with this, this research tries to look at trust, norms and social networks as supporting components of social capital that encourage sustainable tourism.

In this research, social capital is formed from trust, norms and social networks to encourage community attitudes in developing sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism is generally defined broadly as sustainability from a social, economic and environmental perspective. This research looks more specifically at sustainable tourism factors including resource preservation, economic planning, community resources, cultural awareness, environmental education, and stakeholder inclusion. Thus, it can be further seen that community social capital which is formed from trust, norms and social networks can encourage the realization of sustainable tourism as seen from the factors of resource preservation, economic planning, community resources, cultural awareness, environmental education and stakeholder inclusion. The following is the hypothesis used in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Framework for social capital, collective action, and sustainable tourism.

Source : (Bowles & Gintis, 2002; Macbeth et al., 2004; Park et al., 2012, 2015).

3.2. Research variables

The variables in this study consist of latent variables and several indicators forming them. This study uses several main variables of social capital and sustainable tourism variables which consist of resource preservation, economic planning, cultural awareness, community resources, environmental education, and stakeholder inclusion. The following is an explanation of each variable in Table 1.

Table 1. Research variables

Variable	SubVariabel	Indicators	Source
Social Capital (SC)	Trust (T)	T1: trust in fellow community T2 : trust in people with different cultural background T3 : trust in village apparatus or village government T4 : trust in community leaders T5 : trust in tourism institutions	(Irawati et al., 2021; Nugraha et al., 2021; Riska Farisa et al., 2019)
	Norms (No)	No1: compliance with village government regulations No2 : adherence to customary norms No3: attendance in participating in traditional activities or events
	Social Network (SN)	SN1 : willingness to build cooperation to achieve mutual success SN2 : participation in community social activities SN3 : activeness in giving opinion SN4 : participation in group or community meetings
Sustainable Tourism (ST)		ST1 : resource preservation ST2 : economic planning ST3 : cultural awareness ST4 : community resources ST5 : environmental education ST6 : stakeholder inclusion	(Cárdenas et al., 2015; Khalid et al., 2019; Ven, 2015)

3.3. Sample

Sampling in this study using a sampling technique proportionate random sampling. Proportionate random sampling is defined as a sample collection when all respondents can have the same or equal opportunities or opportunities according to a certain proportion in the study (Sugiyono, 2014). In social capital and tourism research that examines social relations between communities, it is important to look at the population in a proportional way. Therefore, this study used proportionate random sampling in order to reflect the diversity of the study population proportionally. In this study, the Harry King Nomogram was used to draw the number of samples, and then proportioned the sample into four groups based on the number of hamlets in the study locations. The following is Harry King’s Nomogram calculation (Sugiyono, 2013) on Figure 2. dan proportionate random sampling (Sugiyono, 2014):

Figure 2. Nomogram Harry King.

Source : (Sugiyono, 2013).

3.3.1. Sample calculation using Nomogram Harry King

$\mathrm{S}=Population\times SamplePercentage\times MultiplicationFactor$

$\mathrm{S}=1361\times 0,16\times 1,195=260,2232\hspace{0.17em}\approx 261$ Household

3.3.2. Sample calculation for proportionate random sampling

Bangelan Hamlet = 612 Household = $\frac{612}{1361}x261$ = 117 Household

Arjomulyo Hamlet = 437 Household = $\frac{437}{1361}x261$ = 84 Household

Sidomulyo Hamlet = 182 Household = $\frac{182}{1361}x261$ = 35 Household

Kampung Baru Hamlet = 130 Household = $\frac{130}{1361}x261$ = 25 Household

This study conducted a survey of the community by asking 261 respondents in each hamlet in the village a questionnaire. The information obtained is about sustainable tourism and social capital, with the sample being the head of the family in the village. In research, social capital that starts with the family will be a force that can be relied upon to solve problems that arise in the village (Khotimah et al., 2020).

In this research, what is meant by head of the family is those who play a key role and have the highest power in their family. The individual who occupies the position of head of the family assumes the role of family leader, thereby assuming responsibility and offering assistance to other members of the family unit. So apart from men, the role of women can also be seen in this research. In research Tristanti et al. (2022) the inclusion of women in the tourism sector has the potential to mitigate the gender disparity in development. Efforts should be undertaken in development initiatives to enhance the ability and engagement of current resources in order to optimize development outcomes. Both genders, men and women, are afforded equal opportunities to engage in societal development as valuable assets. In line with this, in research Yuanita and Gutama (2020) stated that in this case the role and participation of local communities is very important as tourism actors in helping to develop tourism, starting from the upper, middle and lower classes, both government and private circles, even men and women are involved in tourism development. The role of women in tourism development itself is an important element in tourism activities. So far, the role of women has always been underestimated. However, participation in the tourism sector will reduce gender inequality in tourism development. Women’s involvement in the tourism sector needs to be considered and demonstrated so that their role in development increases and gender equality is created. The involvement of women and men in this research can be seen based on the characteristics of the respondents regarding gender in Figure 4(c) which shows the involvement of women in sampling was 75 respondents, and the involvement of men was 186 respondents.

In social capital research, a commonly used unit of study is the head of the family, because this individual holds an important position in the management and distribution of resources within the family unit. The family functions as a mediator of social values, functions as a means of introducing individuals to the wider community and establishing relationships between individuals and the larger social system (Rustina, 2022). So this research uses a sample of family heads to describe respondents’ answers regarding social capital and sustainable tourism in Bangelan Village.

After calculating the sample, primary data was collected using a field survey. Field observations were carried out starting from October 2021, at the time of the initial observation Bangelan Village had two land ownerships, namely land ownership from the local community with an area of 729.27 Ha and PTPN XII (PT Nusantara Plantation/PT Perkebunan Nusantara XII) Bangelan land ownership covering an area of 868.23 Ha. So, in developing Bangelan Village, cooperation between related parties is needed, namely the local community, village government, and PTPN XII. Then, during these initial observations, it could also be seen that the role of institutions and community groups was very influential in involving the community in developing tourist villages, such as the Farmers’ Group per hamlet in Bangelan Village, the Women’s Farmers’ Group (KWT) in Bangelan Village, and Karang Taruna. However, on the other hand, tourism institutions such as Bumdes and Pokdarwis play a less important role because they were only founded at the end of 2020, and do not yet have a structured work program and delivery of tourism-related information. Then until October 2022, observations of Bangelan Village were also carried out to see the social conditions of the community. Several things include the cultural conditions and customs of the Bangelan Village community. The majority of the Bangelan Village community adheres to Islam, influencing traditions and community norms that are strong with Islamic and Javanese elements. This involves several traditional activities and events that are still carried out in Bangelan Village, such as Nyadran, Maulidan, Tahlilan, and others. Apart from that, the people of Bangelan Village also still follow traditional traditions among Javanese people, for example the Selamatan Desa tradition.

Thus, based on these observations, this research examines community social capital in the development of sustainable tourism. The questionnaire was prepared based on initial observations of village conditions supported by literature studies. Questions are arranged on a five-point Likert scale from answers one to five. Some of the questions include the trust variable, asking one of them for trust in tourism institutions in Bangelan Village. The preparation of Answers 1–5 is based on the condition of village communities who trust tourism institutions (Pokdarwis, Bumdes, etc.). People who really trust tourism institutions will choose an answer with a score of 5, and vice versa. Answers 1: really don’t believe up to 5: really don’t believe in this study are indicated by a description of the reasons, one of which is the answer

1: Very Distrustful, because no information related to tourism programs has ever been conveyed, 2: Do not Believe, because the information related to tourism is incomplete, 3: Fairly Confident, because sometimes there are still people who do not know information related to tourism, 4: Trust, because tourism institutions only convey information without involving village communities, and 5: Very Trusting, because tourism institutions always convey information and involve communities in tourism programs.

Furthermore, after preparing the questionnaire based on initial observation conditions and literature study, the questionnaire instrument was tested again with 30 respondents to assess that the questionnaire was well structured. This questionnaire underwent testing to validate the research tool using the SPSS Test on 30 initial respondents. After carrying out initial observations and instrument testing, a large survey was carried out in May 2023 to distribute questionnaires to a total of 261 respondents from heads of families spread across various hamlets in Bangelan Village. The distribution of questionnaires in a large survey was carried out by a team of 12 surveyors to ask questionnaires directly to community respondents in Bangelan Village.

3.4. Analysis method

This study uses statistical analysis with Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)-PLS. This method is used to evaluate the more complex relationships that exist between the variables involved in a model. Therefore, it can provide even better knowledge of the relationship of variables in a model that influence one another, and can overcome difficulties that cannot be resolved by conventional linear regression analysis. SEM is an analytical method using multivariate data to determine a linear relationship between variables in a model, resulting in a more comprehensive and accurate analysis (Harahap, 2020).

In this study, Partial Least Squares (PLS) is a variation of SEM analysis chosen to predict the predictive relationship between constructs or latent variables of Community social capital and sustainable tourism. PLS-SEM is suitable for use in situations where the data used has a low measurement scale or is not normally distributed (Nikmatus Sholiha & Salamah, 2015). As for this study, a sample of 261 community respondents was used. Then, PLS is also more tolerant of smaller samples. In conventional SEM analysis, a larger sample size is usually considered better for producing more accurate estimates. However, by using SEM-PLS, a smaller sample size can still provide sufficient results, making it easier to overcome limitations in research (Marliana, 2020). The SEM analysis in this study is seen to analyze the relationship between variables with the analysis stage carried out is the inner model and outer model on the variables of community social capital and sustainable tourism.

3.5. Characteristics of Bangelan Tourism Village

Bangelan Village is located in Wonosari District, Malang Regency. This village covers 768.10 ha, or 16.33% of the Wonosari sub-district area. Bangelan Village has four hamlets that are part of this village, namely the hamlets of Arjomulyo, Bangelan, Kampung Baru, and Sidomulyo (RPJM Desa Bangelan, 2019–2025). The area of Bangelan Village is bordered by several other villages, such as Karangrejo Village to the west, Kluwut Village to the east, Kromengan Village to the south, and Sumber Tempur Village to the north. In the development of the Bangelan Tourism Village, the focus is on natural and agricultural attractions. Bangelan Village’s tourist attractions include Bangelan Cafe, Communal Cages and Milk Houses, and Bangelan Park. Tanaka Waterfall, which is located in Arjomulyo Hamlet, is one of the main tourist attractions of Desa Wisata Bangelan, as shown in Figure 2.

Based on Figure 3. shows the main tourist object of Bangelan Village Tanaka Waterfall which is located in Arjomulyo Hamlet. This tourist object has an attraction in the form of Sumber Agung water source. Arjomulyo Hamlet has a Japanese-style concept with the natural beauty of water sources. In addition, tourists can not only enjoy the beauty of water sources, but they can also enjoy traditional food served by the community. Tanaka Waterfall has a distance of only less than one kilometer from the main road of Bangelan Tourism Village. Tourists can walk or rent a motorbike from Pokdarwis Tanaka Waterfall. Travel is slowly expected to be able to continue to improve the economy of the village.

Figure 3. Tanaka Waterfall Bangelan.

Source: Primary Survey Results (2023).

3.6. Characteristics of respondents

Respondents in this study were sampled from 261 Bangelan Village residents with different characteristics based on gender, age, income, occupation, and education. Based on gender, the majority of respondents were men (186 respondents) and some were women (75 respondents) in Figure 4(e). This shows that apart from men, women were also involved in this research. Based on a person’s age, he is said to have a productive age at the age of 15–65 years (Muhaemin, 2021). Respondents in this study have a productive age of 15–65 years as much as 93% or 242 respondents, as in Figure 4(a). Then 51% or 134 respondents have taken 9 years of compulsory education in Indonesia, so it will be easier to receive information (Figure 4(b)). However, when viewed based on income, 70% or 183 respondents still have an income below the Malang Regency Minimum Wage (UMK) of IDR 3,268,275 as in Figure 4(d). In line with this, the respondents of this study also have jobs that are mostly engaged in the agricultural sector. Can be seen on Figure 4(c). 131 respondents worked as farmers and 37 respondents as farm laborers. The livelihoods of the Bangelan Tourism Village Community are also supported by the condition of the areas in the village which are mostly agricultural and plantation areas.

Figure 4. Characteristics of respondents in the Bangelan tourism Village.

Source: Survey Results, 2023.

4. Results

SEM-PLS analysis was carried out on social capital and sustainable tourism variables in Bangelan Tourism Village. This analysis was carried out with a measurement model (outer model) and structural models (inner model). In this analysis begins with building a path diagram. This study looks at the relationship of community social capital with sustainable tourism. The following is the SEM-PLS model of Community social capital and sustainable tourism in Figure 5.

Figure 5. SEM-PLS community social capital in sustainable tourism development.

Source: Results of analysis, 2023.

4.1. Outer model

After describing the path diagram, the outer model is then calculated using the construct validity test and the SEM-PLS discriminant test. Construct validity test is done by looking at the value loading factor and AVE (Average Varian Extacted). Limit value of loading factor is above 0.7 then the indicator is said to fulfill and vice versa. The following is a calculation of the factor loading value on the social capital variable of society and sustainable tourism.

Table 2. explain that if the variable has a loading factor value of ≥ 0.7 then it will meet the valid value. Therefore, it can be said that the indicators of social capital and sustainable tourism can describe the variables well. Community social capital has a loading factor value on the trust variable, namely T1: 0.837, T2: 0.810, T3: 0.825, T4: 0.755, and T5: 0.814. Then the norm variable has a loading factor value, namely No1: 0.850, No2: 0.915, and No3: 0.840. And the social network variable has a loading factor value, namely SN1: 0.776, SN2: 0.834, SN3: 0.783, and SN4: 0.814. Thus, social networks, norms, and trusts are able to properly shape the social capital of society.

Table 2. Value loading factor social capital community and sustainable tourism

Variable	Sub Variable	Indicator	outer loading factors	Information
Social Capital	Trust (T)	T1	0,837	Valid
		T2	0,810	Valid
		T3	0,825	Valid
		T4	0,755	Valid
		T5	0,814	Valid
	Norm (NO)	NO1	0,850	Valid
		NO2	0,915	Valid
		NO3	0,840	Valid
	Social network (SN)	SN1	0,776	Valid
		SN2	0,834	Valid
		SN3	0,783	Valid
		SN4	0,814	Valid
Sustainable Tourism (ST)		ST1	0,870	Valid
		ST2	0,859	Valid
		ST3	0,873	Valid
		ST4	0,878	Valid
		ST5	0,825	Valid
		ST6	0,786	Valid

Source: (Results of Analysis, 2023).

Next, on Table 2. Also explained sustainable tourism with the value of each loading factor on ST1: 0.870, ST2: 0.859, ST3: 0.873, ST4: 0.878, ST5: 0.825, and ST6: 0.786. Each of these values has a number greater than 0.7, so it can be interpreted that sustainable tourism can be formed by stakeholder inclusion, environmental education, community resource, cultural awareness, economic planning, dan resource preservation properly. Then a construct validity test was carried out by looking at the AVE value in Table 3 below.

Table 3. AVE value social capital community and sustainable tourism

Variable	Average Variance Extracted (AVE)	Information
Trust	0,654	Valid
Norm	0,755	Valid
Social Network	0,643	Valid
Social Capital	0,603	Valid
Sustainable Tourism	0,721	Valid

Source: (Results of Analysis, 2023).

The AVE value is in Table 3. It is said that it fulfills the typing has a limit value of more than or equal to 0.5. Based on the calculation of community social capital and sustainable tourism variables, it can be seen that each variable has an AVE that meets the requirements or is valid. The AVE value for each variable is 0,654, 0,755, 0,643, 0,603, and 0,721. So from that it can be interpreted that the SEM-PLS model can describe the variables of social capital and sustainable tourism well. Next, it can be continued with discriminant validity testing to find out information on indicators that do not have a high correlation with indicators in different variables. This value can be seen from the cross loading value. Cross loading can be seen in Table 4. on the SEM-PLS model.

Table 4. Cross loading value community social capital and sustainable tourism

Indicators	Norm	Social Network	Sustainable Tourism	Trust
NO1	0,850	0,709	0,553	0,680
NO2	0,915	0,788	0,634	0,788
NO3	0,840	0,694	0,610	0,658
SN1	0,642	0,776	0,466	0,625
SN2	0,732	0,834	0,646	0,727
SN3	0,681	0,783	0,603	0,688
SN4	0,641	0,814	0,498	0,690
ST1	0,687	0,701	0,870	0,765
ST2	0,564	0,539	0,859	0,525
ST3	0,561	0,559	0,873	0,570
ST4	0,539	0,526	0,878	0,560
ST5	0,572	0,552	0,825	0,630
ST6	0,561	0,616	0,786	0,586
T1	0,758	0,706	0,621	0,837
T2	0,552	0,625	0,504	0,810
T3	0,668	0,709	0,540	0,825
T4	0,606	0,664	0,541	0,755
T5	0,707	0,736	0,706	0,814

Source: (Results of Analysis, 2023).

Based on Table 4, each indicator of social capital and sustainable tourism has met its limit value which is considered valid, which is more than 0.7. Therefore, it can be seen that sustainable tourism and social capital have valid values. Next perform reliability testing to determine the reliable value of the model. This can be done by looking at composite reliability and cronbach alpha, which can be seen in Table 5. following.

Table 5. Reliability value community social capital and sustainable tourism

Variable	Cronbach’s Alpha	Composite Reliability	Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
Norm	0,837	0,902	0,755
Social Capital	0,940	0,948	0,603
Social Network	0,815	0,878	0,643
Sustainable Tourism	0,922	0,939	0,721
Trust	0,868	0,904	0,654

Source: (Results of Analysis, 2023).

From Table 5. explains that the SEM-PLS model is reliable, with a value of more than 0.7 or meets a reliable value. So it shows that social capital and sustainable tourism variables have good reliability. Thus, all SEM-PLS models of social capital and sustainable tourism are good measurement models.

4.2. Inner model

In the second stage of the SEM-PLS analysis, an inner model or structural model was carried out which was tested using the r-square value and significance value. Indication of the model through r-square, it can be seen that the model includes strong, moderate, or weak. then on the significance test, can be known whether or not the model is significant. The following is an r-square test on the SEM-PLS model of social capital and sustainable tourism with the results in Table 6 below.

Table 6. R-square value community social capital and sustainable tourism

Variable	R Square
Social Capital	1,000
Sustainable Tourism	0,558

Source: (Results of Analysis, 2023).

Based on the R-square results in Table 6. Social capital is worth 1,000 on its r-square. Therefore, it is said that social capital is a strong model. Social networks, trusts, and norms can explain the variability of social capital. Furthermore, sustainable tourism is worth 0.558 on the r-square. Therefore, it is said that sustainable tourism is a strong model as well. Social capital can explain the variability that sustainable tourism has.

Furthermore, the calculation of the significance value is carried out to determine the significant value of each path coefficient in the SEM-PLS model. Variables that have a significant relationship, only if they have t-statistics > t table. Then the p-value is > 0.05. The following is the result of the calculation of the significance value at Table 7. following.

Table 7. Significance value community social capital and sustainable tourism

Path Coefficient	Original Sample (O)	T Statistics	P Values
Norm -> Social Capital	0.293	30.914	0.000
Social Capital -> Sustainable Tourism	0.747	26.599	0.000
Social Network -> Social Capital	0.333	36.212	0.000
Trust -> Social Capital	0.432	37.907	0.000

Source: (Results of Analysis, 2023).

Based on the significance value, it is known that each path coefficient has a significant and positive value. The significance value of the SEM-PLS model shown in Table 7 shows each of the significant values of the research variables. These results can answer the first and second research hypotheses, with the following explanation.

H1:

norms, social networks, and trust have a positive influence on the formation of social capital in society

Relationships created from norms, then social networks, and trust in social capital have t-statistic values of 30,914, 36212, and 37,907 respectively, so > 1.96 (t-table). Then the total p value < 0.05 with a value of 0.000. Therefore, it can be seen that norms, then social networks, and trust have a positive and significant influence on the formation of social capital with the original sample values of 0.293, 0.333, and 0.432. Thus, in conclusion, the social capital owned by the community is a picture of social relations that are created from the community and are formed because of the norms in it, then trust, and social networks.

H2:

Community social capital has a significant influence on sustainable tourism development

The relationship between social capital and sustainable tourism has a t-statistic value of 26,599 or > 1.96 (t-table). Then the total p value < 0.05 with a value of 0.000. Therefore, social capital has a positive and significant influence on sustainable tourism with an original sample value of 0.747. Thus, in conclusion, community social capital can encourage the development of sustainable tourism, social capital formed by norms, then trust, and social networks will become community strengths that are able to be utilized in the development of sustainable tourism.

5. Discussion

The results of the analysis on SEM-PLS explain the existence of community social capital and sustainable tourism formed by 18 indicators. With social capital formed by 12 indicators well and sustainable tourism formed by 6 indicators well as seen in Table 2. All indicators have a valid value above 0.7. And based on the construct validity test (Tables 2 and 3), discriminant test (Table 4), and construct reliability (Table 5) it can be seen that all variables can describe the SEM-PLS model well. Social capital Society is shaped by trust, networks, and norms. As well as sustainable tourism formed by community resource, cultural awareness, environmental education, economic planning, resource preservation, and stakeholder inclusion.

Components such as norms, then trust, and social networks are parts of social capital that aim to encourage behavior that leads to social cohesion and cooperation to achieve common goals (Park et al., 2015; Wakefield & Poland, 2005). Social capital has the ability to influence people’s growth and behavior (Park et al., 2015). In line with the theory based on H1, trust, then norms, and networks have a significant and positive impact on the formation of social capital (Table 7). Interestingly, of the three variables that form social capital, trust is the variable that forms social capital the most with an influence value of 0.432. Community social capital is formed from trust in others, people with different backgrounds, community leaders, government and tourism institutions in Figure 5. Trust is very important in people’s social life because it can influence the way a person interacts and behaves and plays an important role in various aspects of social life (Santoso, 2020). In line with this, trust in this research is the basis for forming social capital with the most influential indicator being trust in fellow citizens with an influence value of 0.837. When related to the conditions of the Bangelan Village community, trust between people is influenced by the habits of the Bangelan Village community who are willing to ask for and provide assistance in times of difficulty. In implementing village tourism activities, the community plays a big role in it because it is based on mutual trust. This can be seen from the various developments in tourism activities in Bangelan Village which have a community scope. One of them is an educational tour of a communal goat farm and milk house. The communal drums are managed jointly by the people who are members of the Karya Mulia Farmers Group, Bangelan Village. Then the milk house, involves the role of the women’s community who are members of the Bangelan Village Women’s Farmers Group (KWT), which is located not far from the communal drum.

The next form of social capital is social norms. social norms based on the findings are described through traditional rules, then attendance at traditional events, as well as government regulations. On Figure 5. shows that, traditional rules in the village have the greatest influence on the social norms of society. This happens because the norms for village customary rules are a way for the village community to respect their ancestors, and it has become a habit when they live in the village. According to Saher (Saher et al., 2018) norms are an important component in controlling and demonstrating one’s attitudes and behavior in society. This is in line with the condition of the people of Bangelan Village who comply with traditional norms to maintain a harmonious, peaceful and mutually respectful life among fellow communities. The people of Bangelan Village continue to comply with customary rules by carrying out traditional traditions such as Selamatan Desa, making it a form of community obedience to the customary norms that apply in the village. Apart from that, there are also routine religious ceremonies that are strong with Javanese customs and Islam in Bangelan Village, such as Nyadran, Maulidan, Tahlilan, and others. This religious ceremony is also a form of obedience from the people of Bangelan Village to religious norms. Norms in village society are a set of rules and habits that grow and develop, becoming guidelines for community behavior. The customs and religious traditions that exist in Bangelan Village are a form of norms that are firmly adhered to by the community in adhering to religion and respecting ancestors in the village.

Next, social capital also comes from social networks. This is shown by the findings which show the tendency of people to be willing to work together, then participate in social activities, and participate in village meetings, as well as participate in group meetings in the village.When viewed from Figure 5. the indicator that most influences social networks is participation in social activities in the village. Social activities in Bangelan Village consist of village cleaning activities, social gatherings, sports activities, and community service. Social networks refers to social relations among people that involve exchanges and cooperation that are mutually beneficial and reciprocal (Saher et al., 2018). Social networks between the people of Bangelan Village can be generated because there are mutually beneficial social activities to achieve common goals. This is in line with the condition of the people of Bangelan Village who are trying to build cooperation and a wide social network. For example, in the development of the Café Bangelan tourist attraction in Sidomulyo Hamlet, this tourist attraction is located in front of the PTPN XII Gate. Government, local communities, and PTPN XII building cooperation to revive tourism potential in Sidomulyo Hamlet, Bangelan Village in the form of coffee plantations and water springs. Apart from that, Bangelan Village has also built collaborations with external parties such as Brawijaya University since 2021 to promote its tourist village. Apart from that, Bangelan Village also carries out promotions using social media so that it can be widely known.

Sustainable tourism is described from resource preservation, economic planning, community resources, cultural awareness, environmental education, and stakeholder inclusion (Khalid et al., 2019). Resource Preservation shows the level of public concern for environmental preservation. Then Economic planning is seen from the economic impact due to tourism. Cultural Awareness is community awareness of local culture. Then Community resources is community awareness of resource utilization, and Environmental Education is community knowledge of environmental issues in the village. As well as tourism stakeholder inclusion in the village is referred to as the involvement of stakeholders in the village starting from the government, local communities, business actors, and tourists. Based on the six indicators that describe sustainable tourism from Figure 5. It can be seen that Community resources are the most influential indicator in the formation of sustainable tourism.

The Bangelan Village community has an awareness of resources which is illustrated through the community utilizing the village’s potential to support tourism activities Bangelan Village which has potential resources engaged in the coffee farming sector, etawa goat farming, and natural resource, namely water. The potential of the village can be managed by the village to provide social benefits for the community, then increase the economy, while still paying attention to environmental preservation.

In developing rural tourism social capital plays an important role (Jones, 2005; Macbeth et al., 2004; McGehee et al., 2010; Park et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2011). Social capital as a fundamental component in the development of sustainable tourism (Park et al., 2012). According to H2 which explains that social capital has a positive and significant influence on sustainable tourism (Table 7). It is interesting to look at the influence of social capital and factors forming sustainable tourism. Trust is the basis of social capital which most influences the realization of social capital in encouraging sustainable tourism. then sustainable tourism is formed by resource preservation, economic planning, community resources, cultural awareness, environmental education, and stakeholder inclusion. Most influenced by the community resources factor or community awareness to utilize existing resources in Bangelan Village. Thus, another finding can be seen that the existence of the social capital variable of trust most influences the realization of continued tourism variables from community resources. Then, overall social capital can become a basic resource formed from beliefs, norms and social networks in society and encourage the development of sustainable tourism in Bangelan Village. In line with this, Bangelan Village seeks to utilize existing resources in the village for tourism development. Starting from the potential of the farm, it can be turned into an educational tour for communal goat farming and processed into goat milk in the dairy house. Then the potential water resources in Tanaka Hamlet are utilized to become the main tourist attraction in Bangelan Village, namely Tanaka Waterfall. Likewise, there is the potential for coffee plantations to be processed by the community into powdered milk products to support Micro, Small Medium Enterprise (MSMEs) in tourist villages. In developing the existing resources in Bangelan Village, the role of community social capital cannot be separated. Social capital plays a role in forming a response from the community to behave and behave in support of tourism (Park et al., 2015). Social capital encourages the people of Bangelan Village to provide positive efforts in developing sustainable tourism. So that people can get long-term benefits from tourism both economically, socially and environmentally.

6. Conclusions

Social capital as capital that is formed from trust, then norms, as well as the social network of the people of Bangelan Village. Trust affects social capital by 0.432 then norms affect social capital by 0.293 And social networks affect social capital by 0.333 Therefore, it can be seen that the trust held by the people of Bangelan Village is the variable that most influences the social capital of the community. the findings found that the trust of the people of Bangelan Village illustrates trust between fellow communities, towards the village government, towards people with different backgrounds, tourism institutions, and community leaders. The existence of social capital in the Bangelan Village community then has a positive and significant influence on sustainable tourism by 0.747 Social capital is able to become a basic resource in realizing sustainable tourism development in Bangelan Village. The results of this study can be a reference for other research that examines the topic of the importance of social capital in the context of sustainable tourism.

Recommendations given for further research based on the results, it is hoped that there will be a study of tourism institutions such as Pokdarwis and Bumdesa Wisata Bangelan in improving the delivery of information related to tourism development. Based on the results of the analysis, trust is the most influential element in shaping the social capital of the village community. However, based on the findings of trust in tourism institutions there are still people who are doubtful or quite trusting because sometimes people don’t know about tourism information. So it is hoped that through good trust, village communities will be encouraged to develop sustainable tourism that provides economic, social and environmental benefits. There are several recommended steps that can be implemented by local governments, tourism village managers and Pokdarwis in Bangelan Village in realizing sustainable tourism, including the development of sustainable tourism products and destinations in tourist villages, collaboration and cooperation between governments, Pokdarwis and tourism institutions for development. sustainable tourism products that pay attention to resource preservation, economic planning, community resources, cultural awareness, environmental education and stakeholder inclusion factors. Apart from that, through social capital it is possible to develop trust in tourists. The government, Pokdarwis, tourism institutions and local communities can help develop trust among tourists in the positive image of the Bangelan Tourism Village. The existence of social capital is a valuable basic resource for the implementation of sustainable tourism in Bangelan Village. So, it is hoped that it can provide long-term benefits that can be felt by all stakeholders.

Acknowledgments

Financial support for the research was provided by the DRTPM DIKTI and LPPM Universitas Brawijaya (Contract No. 708.14/UN10.C10/TU/2023).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Supplementary material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2293310

Additional information

Funding

The work was supported by the Kementerian Riset, Teknologi dan Pendidikan Tinggi [708.14/UN10.C10/TU/2023].

Notes on contributors

Gunawan Prayitno

The authors are Gunawan Prayitno, Aidha Auliah, Ismu Rini Dwi Ari, Achmad Effendi, Ainul Hayat, Ahmad Delisa, Enock Siankwilimba, and Jacqueline Hiddlestone-Mumford, a combination of researchers from Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia, and the University of Liverpool, United Kingdom. The main research of first author activities that have been carried out are research related to social capital and migration decisions, social capital and conversion of agricultural land, social capital and development of tourism and sustainable agriculture, as well as social capital and adaptation related to the COVID-19 pandemic and sustainable agriculture in Tourist village area. The research carried out this time addresses topics related to social capital in the development of sustainable tourism in Indonesia. This research is related to the broad issue of social capital and tourist village development studied by the author.