Evaluation of tourist behavior towards traditional food consumption: validation of extended Theory of Planned Behaviour

Abstract

The investigation aims to explore the food choice behavior of tourists concerning traditional Kashmiri food. The Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (ETPB) has been applied that explains human behavior from the perspective of the attitude-behavior-experience relationship. An instrument was developed based on previous literature and was tested for a pilot study to check its validity and reliability. A descriptive research design and a positivist approach were applied to the present investigation. A sample of 387 valid questionnaires was analyzed for the present study. The purposive sampling technique was used to collect the data from tourists consuming traditional Kashmiri traditional food. Collected data was analyzed through SPSS-20 and Smart-PLS 4.0 software. The investigation results revealed that the Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour provided feasible explanations for tourists’ traditional food consumption behavior. Except for the Esthetic Experience, all other variables (i.e. Attitude, Curiosity, Education, Perceived Behavioural Control, Perceived Usefulness, and Subjective norms) have a significant positive relation with Behavioural Intention, and Behavioural Intention has a significant positive association with Actual Behaviour. Given the lack of research examining tourist food consumption, this study provided evidence that one of the effective ways to understand tourists’ traditional food buying behavior is from the perspectives of both attitude-behavior relationships and experience.

Keywords:

• Food choice
• tourist food consumption
• traditional food
• consumer behavior tourism
• India

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Pier Luigi Sacco, Humanities, IULM University, Milano, Italy

SUBJECTS:

• Psychological Science; Hospitality; Tourism

Introduction

Tourism has evolved into a multifaceted global phenomenon, encompassing a myriad of experiences that contribute to the cultural and economic exchange between destinations and visitors (Kandampully et al., 2018; Mak et al., 2017). A pivotal aspect of this interaction is the consumption of traditional foods (Mitchell & Hall, 2003), which serves as a gateway for tourists to connect with the unique flavors and culinary heritage of a destination. Despite the increased standardization and globalization of the food system, the interest in traditional food products (TFPs) is markedly growing among consumers, producers, and policy makers across both developing and developed countries (Anders & Caswell, 2009). Jordana (2000) derived from this sociological definition the following: ‘‘In order to be traditional, a product must be linked to a territory and it must also be part of a set of traditions, which will necessarily ensure its continuity over time’’. Traditional food products (TFPs) play a significant role in the cultural, identity, and heritage aspects of each country a particular community or region (Barska & Wojciechowska-Solis, 2018; Grubor et al., 2022; Kalenjuk Pivarski et al., 2022; Vanhonacker et al., 2010). TFPs are derived from specific ingredients and are made utilising traditional meal preparation techniques that have been handed down through generations (Petrescu-Mag et al., 2020). The economic and cultural implications of traditional food consumption have been explored in the literature. Through a comprehensive review, Smith and Xiao (2008) outline how culinary tourism contributes to economic development by creating jobs, supporting local businesses, and promoting sustainable tourism practices. Furthermore, Richards (2003) highlights the role of food in cultural preservation, arguing that culinary heritage is a key component of a destination’s identity.

Tourist behavior, a complex interplay of motivations and decision-making processes, is intricately tied to food choices. According to Kim et al. (2013), tourists often seek novel and authentic experiences, and traditional foods offer a tangible connection to local culture. Considering the importance of behavior, the present article’s main impetus is to study consumer behavior concerning traditional food consumption. However, there is a limited amount of research currently available that seeks to elucidate the factors influencing visitors’ decisions about food selection and purchasing behaviour (Robinson & Getz, 2016). It is worth noting that Mitchell and Hall (2003) were the pioneers in identifying this gap in research. However, analyzing and predicting consumer behavior is complex, as consumers’ desires and needs vary constantly. Several theories have been developed and tested over the past decade for understating consumer behavior. The theory of planned behavior is a prominent conceptual framework to study people’s intentions to do a specific behavior related to a food choice (Ajzen, 2002, 2015; Shin & Hancer, 2016; Shin et al., 2018). Besides the theory of planned behavior, studies added and validated variables to the TPB (Theory of Planned Behavior). The Present study attempted to validate and extend the theory of planned behavior in food consumption. The structure of the paper is arranged as follows. After the introduction section, the theoretical background is presented. We then offer a conceptual model and discuss the relationships among model elements and research methodology, including sources of the research instrument, data collection, and data analysis. Finally, we presented the findings, discussed implications, and suggested future research directions.

Theoretical background

Theory of planned behavior (TPB)

Solomon (1996) urges consumer behavior (CB) involves decisions, activities ideas that satisfy the customer’s needs. Considering psychological aspects to predict and explain consumer behavior is not new in literature. Authors have addressed consumer behavior in understanding purchasing choices and purchasing intentions from time to time and have suggested psychological factors to do so. The theory of Planned Behavior is the most widespread theoretical model introduced by Ajzen (1991), an extension of Reasoned Action Theory. Ajzen and Fishbein developed the theory of reasoned action in 1977, based on the idea that human behavior is affected by the person’s attitude towards particular action and outcome. The influence put forth by other people is the subjective norm, which represents the perception that a given behavior is expected by the person and is considered necessary for decision-makers. Although attitude and subjective norms have been regarded as vital variables in predicting an individual’s behavior, several studies have proved the same empirically. But, in some cases, the attitude and subjective norm have not been proven sufficient while predicting the individuals’ behavioral intention. This has become a base assumption for the theory of planned behavior and has posed consideration of further variables that will predict an individual’s behavior. Perceived behavioral control has been added to the theory of reasoned action, and in amalgamations, these three variables were better to indicate the individual’s behavior intention. Perceived behavior control is ‘expectation about the ease or difficulty in implementing a certain behavior’ (Ajzen, 2002).

The addition of perceived behavior control to the theory of research action is known as ‘The theory of planned behavior’, so it is an extension of the theory of reasoned action introduced by Fishbein and Ajzen (1977). According to the theory of planned behavior, an ‘individual’s intention is determined by three conceptually independent predictors: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control toward a specific behavior’. According to Ajzen (1991), the theory of planned behavior postulates there are three distinct factors that independently influence one’s intention to act. The first is the attitude toward the behavior & refers to ‘the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question’. The second factor is a social element referred to as subjective norm, which pertains to ‘the perceived social pressure encouraging or discouraging the behavior’. The third factor influencing intention is the degree of perceived behavioral control, refers to ‘the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior and it is assumed to reflect past experience as well as anticipated impediments and obstacles’.

Numerous researchers have used the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as a systematic framework for determining the factors that influence an individual’s behavior (e.g. Chavarria & Phakdee-Auksorn, 2017; Chou et al., 2012; Han et al., 2010; Hsu & Huang, 2012). For example, Chou et al. (2012) used the TPB to explore factors influencing the adoption of green practices in the restaurant setting. Han et al. (2010) used the TPB to examine hotel guests’ intentions to stay in a green hotel. Additionally, investigations of tourist motivations and behaviors (Chavarria & Phakdee-Auksorn, 2017; Hsu & Huang, 2012) were undertaken using the TPB. This empirical research successfully established the TPB’s predictive validity, which can be substantiated by searching in Google Scholar, it was found that the theory of planned behavior has been cited in 1,27,181 studies as of 29^th Oct, 2023.On the other hand, the proportional relevance of the three intention predictors varied among study contexts and actions. Although theory of planned behavior (TPB) has garnered substantial research support, recent suggestions propose extending it to try increasing its predictive utility (Pierro et al., 2003).

Extended theory of planned behavior

The theory of planned behavior has received well empirical support to predict the behavior of an individual to a diversity of areas like consumer behavior, human resource, leisure, and recreation, etc. (Ajzen & Driver, 1992; Han et al., 2011; Kassem et al., 2003; Norman & Conner, 2005; Pavlou & Fygenson, 2006; Pierro et al., 2003; Quintal et al., 2010; Tsai et al., 2011; Wiethoff, 2004; Walker et al., 2007). Besides being used widely over the past years, the theory of planned behavior too has suffered criticisms, which have paved the way for the extension of the theory of planned behavior. Thus, there are some studies extending the theory of planned behavior by adding some extra variables to increase its predictive utility and application to different situations or behaviors. Numerous scholars have augmented the theory of planned behavior by introducing additional variables such as past behavior, self-identity, personal norms, moral sensitivity, perceived risk, travel intention, authenticity, trust, curiosity, perceived usefulness, and more.

The significance of experience in tourism research has gained momentum after the experience economy’s introduction. ‘Experience mainly lies in a set of complex interactions between the subjective responses of the customer and objective features of the product’ (Addis & Holbrook, 2001; Singh, 2014). Pine and Gilmore (2001) offered a framework of 4 realms of experience to explore customer experience during consumption. Esthetic and Educational Experience played a role in predicting the individual’s behaviour intention (Chang, 2013; Nazki, 2017; Singh & Nazki, 2019). Some studies signify the curiosity variable as a factor for individuals’ behavioral intention. James (1890) developed a theory focused on curiosity and curiosity to orient human behavior. Spielberger and Starr (1994) urged curiosity to address individuals’ future intentions and helps predict behaviour. Some studies recommend perceived usefulness in predicting an individual’s behavior (Guo et al., 2015; Tommasetti et al., 2018).

A survey of the tourism literature suggests that the majority of existing research on tourist food consumption focuses on food service (Nield et al., 2000; Sheldon & Fox, 1988), rather than on local food consumption (Kim et al., 2009; Ryu & Jang, 2006; Torres, 2002). In the past the tourist food consumption, a critical component of tourist consumption, has been largely ignored in hospitality and tourism literature (Cohen & Avieli, 2004). The statement has been substantiated by Robinson and Getz (2016) claiming that the research aiming to explain tourists’ food selection behaviour and buying behaviour is only just emerging. A few researchers have applied the idea to the consumption of prepared meals or take-out (Bagozzi et al., 2000; Mahon et al., 2006), with results indicating that the theories in this area have some relevance. As the consumption of local food significantly influences the overall tourist experience and draws tourists to a destination, researchers have been motivated to study this aspect. In the context of traditional Indian cuisine, quality, variety, and authenticity were recognized as the essential images of Indian cuisine. According to Ramjit and Gangotia (2013), the respondents are satisfied with core values and food choices in the various states of India. Food/cuisine attributes, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions were significantly supported. Local food is commonly defined as ‘food and drink that is produced or grown in the local area or local specialty food that has a local identity’ in the tourism context (Nummedal & Hall, 2006, p. 367). Okumus et al. (2007) emphasized that consumption of local food provides tourists with cultural and authentic experiences. According to Correia et al. (2020), local cuisine provides tourists with a diverse range of values that extend beyond mere gastronomic or dietary considerations. These values comprise local, ethnic, and national traditions, as well as historical, cultural, and culinary practises. Accordingly, it may be claimed that local food refers to foodstuff fashioned by the traditional knowledge gathered in the region or country throughout the process, ranging from the past to the present, and is particular to the region or country concerned.

The TPB has been explored in the context of food choices and food intake, as well as in the prediction of consumer behavior (Dowd & Burke, 2013). It has especially been applied to the context of organic food consumption (Arvola et al., 2008; Irianto, 2015; Scalco et al., 2017; Shin et al., 2018). Shin et al. (2016) utilised the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) framework to examine the factors influencing consumers’ intentions to purchase local food. Their findings indicated that attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, and moral standards all contribute to shaping individuals’ intentions to purchase local food. Choe et al. (2020) utilised the TPB and the norm activation theory to explore the intention to ingest edible insects in restaurants by tourists visiting South Korea. As a result, they revealed that each of the main factors of the TPB (attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control) has an influence. Shin et al. (2021) enlarged the TPB and studied the antecedents of the purchasing of state-branded food products. While finding that health consciousness is not an essential predictor, the authors put out that attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control are major variables for the intention to purchase. The study by Soltani et al. (2021) evaluated behavioral intentions and their stimulants within the context of food tourism, suggesting that tourists’ attitudes toward local food and food destination image are influenced by local food experiential value, local food consumption value and social media influencers to explain the behavioral intentions of tourists.

In recent decades, food tourism has gained significant popularity (Soltani et al., 2021), with a destination’s culinary offerings and heritage now acknowledged as a key factor attracting tourists (Tsai & Wang, 2017). Local cuisine is suggested to play a crucial role in motivating tourists to choose particular destinations (Kivela & Crotts, 2006). Despite, tourist food consumption as an important aspect of tourism, yet it has received little attention in the literature on hospitality and tourism (Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Robinson & Getz, 2016), especially there is little research in the context of local traditional food of India. In this study, the relationships among attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, behavioral intention, and actual consumption of Local Indian food, along with other variables, curiosity, esthetic experience, educational experience, and perceived usefulness (i.e. Extended Theory of Planned Behavior) are examined based on the TPB. The added variables to the TPB will bring more comprehensive view in predicting behaviours of tourists towards traditional food consumption. The added variables i.e. esthetic experience ‘reflects how people enjoy or immerse themselves in an event or environment’, educational experience ‘absorbs the events unfolding before him while actively participating’, ‘the awareness of the consumers on the productivity, performance, effectiveness & benefits of using particular thing’ & curiosity ‘seeking information about novel objects’ has a significant role in consumers perceptions and preferences towards traditional/Local food consumption (Feldmann & Hamm, 2015).

Hypotheses development

Numerous scientists have posited a strong association between individuals’ behavioural goals and their attitudes. According to Campbell (1947), attitude can be conceptualised as a form of behavioural consistency exhibited by individuals towards social entities. In a similar way, Allport (1967) posited that attitudes can be understood as a mental state that has the potential to directly or indirectly impact an individual’s reactions to various things and situations that are connected to it. The concept of attitude refers to the evaluative stance, either positive or negative, that an individual adopts towards engaging in a certain behaviour. On the other hand, subjective norm pertains to the perceived social pressure that an individual experiences in relation to engaging in a specific behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975). Based on the provided description, it can be inferred that the prediction of a certain behavioural goal can be achieved through an analysis of the attitude towards that intention. Therefore, it can be concluded that:

• Hypothesis 1: Attitude has a significant positive relationship with behavioural intention to consume Kashmiri traditional food.

The consumption of local food has various contributions to the destination, making it a behaviour that is valued by different individuals. This appreciation of local food consumption can potentially enhance individuals’ intentions to consume local food. Ultimately, the self-confidence of individuals (Cheng et al., 2006) and the availability of local food (Han et al., 2010) are expected to positively influence their inclinations to consume local food. In accordance with this line of thinking, the hypotheses were formulated in the following manner:

• Hypothesis 2: Perceived behavioral control has positive relationship with behavioural intention to consume Kashmiri traditional food.

The relationship between curiosity and behavioural intention has been extensively explored by multiple authors (Aronoff, 1962; Dashiell, 1925), all of whom have concluded that there exists a strong positive association between these two variables. Spielberger and Starr (1994) emphasised the significance of curiosity in influencing individuals’ future choices, to the extent that their behaviour in various situations could be solely dictated by their prior curiosity. Hence, considering that curiosity can serve as a catalyst for individuals’ inclination to make specific choices, the objective of this study was to examine whether:

• Hypothesis 3: Curiosity control has a significant positive relationship with the intention to consume Kashmiri traditional food

Subjective norm refers to ‘the perceived social pressure to perform or not to 190 perform the behaviour’ (Ajzen, 1991). The influence of subjective norms on forming intention has been tested by previous researchers (Chiou, 1998; Ham et al., 2015). Thus from literature and based on the theory of planned behavior constructs, following hypothesis is formulated

• Hypothesis 4: Subjective norm has a significant positive relationship with the intention to consume Kashmiri traditional food.

Perceived value has garnered growing attention in both academic research and practical applications within the marketing industry. It is often regarded as a crucial determinant of repurchase intentions (Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000). In recent years, scholars in the field of tourism have increasingly focused on the concept of perceived value (Chen & Tsai, 2007; Kashyap & Bojanic, 2000; Oh et al., 2007; Petrick, 2004; Petrick et al., 2001; Petrick & Backman, 2002). According to Chen and Tsai (2007), empirical research has demonstrated the positive influence of perceived value on both future behavioural intentions and behaviours. Thus for the present study the researchers have formulated the following hypothesis:

• Hypothesis 5: Perceived value has a significant positive relationship with the behavioural intention to consume Kashmiri traditional food

Active participation is a shared attribute throughout the other categories of experience, namely education and escapism, as identified by Pine and Gilmore in their framework of the four domains of an experience. According to Pine and Gilmore (1999), it has been noted that in educational experiences, guests engage in active participation while absorbing the unfolding events. According to Oh et al. (2007), travellers in the tourism industry get educational experiences and enhance their skills and knowledge through interactive participation that involves both their mental and physical faculties.

In their study, Horng and Hsu (2020) conducted an analysis of the characteristics associated with the aesthetic dining encounter. They systematically categorised different forms of dining stimuli, taking into account the comprehensive sensory experience. In relation to aesthetics, the aesthetic performance of employees has been observed to have an impact on the emotions and behavioural intentions of consumers (Tsaur et al., 2015). Previous studies have provided evidence indicating that human interaction, encompassing both interactions with employees and fellow consumers, constitutes one of the two crucial components of aesthetic design (Her & Seo, 2018; Walls et al., 2011). Consequently, the subsequent hypotheses are posited:

• Hypothesis 6: Education Experience has a significant positive relationship with the behavioural intention to consume Kashmiri traditional food.

• Hypothesis 7: Esthetic Experience has a significant positive relationship with the behavioural intention to consume Kashmiri traditional food.

A multitude of scholarly investigations in the field of tourism have explored the complex relationship between the behavioural intention and the actual behaviour of travellers. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) was established by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) through comprehensive research, which highlighted the significant role of behavioural intentions in predicting future actions. The research conducted by Kim et al. (2015) further examined the connection between behavioural intentions and actual behaviours.

• Hypothesis 8: Behavioural intention has a significant positive relationship with the actual consumption of Indian traditional food.

Research framework

The present research intends to evaluate tourists’ food choice behaviour to the traditional cuisines of India. In line with the study’s aim, an exhaustive review of the existing literature related to behavioral theories, like the theory of planned behavior and other traits that control behavior, was studied. An extended theory of planned behavior was adopted. Thus finally, a research framework was adopted for the present study (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Research framework.

The conceptual framework for the present investigation had been developed based on the gaps existing in the literature with regard to the Theory of Planned Behaviour and new dimensions (i.e. Curiosity, Perceived Usefulness, Education and Esthetic) have been added to the TPB model and new research framework has been developed. Since the model adopted bridges few research gaps in the existing literature and the data has been collected with regard to the variables in the model.

Research methodology

Design

The present study adopted a quantitative research approach, and a self-administered questionnaire was designed from the previous studies and well-tested before the actual collection of the data. The instrument was initially pre-tested by four research scholars, 02 faculty members, and 02 industry experts to catch the study’s essence. After pre-testing, the questionnaire was distributed among 20 respondents for the pilot study to check the instrument’s reliability. Reliability for each construct was sufficiently above the recommended threshold of .70 (Nunnally, 1978).

Instrument/measures

In the present investigation, various constructs were taken, adopted from previously validated scales, and modified for this study.

Attitude (AT)

The following three items evaluated attitude: ‘Consuming local food is a good idea’ (AT1), ‘I like knowing about local food items’ (AT2) & ‘Restaurants that serve local food adopt appropriate behavior’ (AT3). These measures were taken from the study of Tommasetti et al. (2018) and modified for the present study.

Subjective norms (SN)

The dimension of subjective norms was measured through 04 statements, i.e. ‘People who influence my behavior think it is preferable to consume local/traditional food’ (SN1), ‘People in my organization (school, university, company, etc.) consider that consumption of local/traditional food is useful’ (SN2), ‘In general, people support the consumption of local/traditional food’ (SN3) & ‘People who are important to me want me to taste local food’ (SN4). This scale was mainly derived from previous Han et al. (2010) research and modified accordingly to capture the study’s right essence.

Perceived behavior control (PBC)

Four statements like ‘I would like to attend restaurants that serve/offer local and traditional food items’ (PBC1), ‘I decide, I will go to restaurants that serve/offer local food items’ (PBC2), ‘I think I have the resources, the knowledge, and the skills necessary to understand if a restaurant serves/offers local food item’ (PBC3) & ‘I am capable of consuming local food when I go to restaurants/local vendors’ (PBC4) were taken from the study of Tommasetti et al. (2018) and redesigned for the present examination.

Perceived usefulness (PUS)

Two statements like, ‘I consider the local food items as a useful element for health’ (PUS1) and ‘Keeping local food items on the menu increases restaurant productivity’ (PUS2) were used to measure the variable Perceived Usefulness. These items were taken from the study of Guo et al. (2015) and amended accordingly for this study.

Curiosity (CU)

The dimension of curiosity was measured through 02 statements viz. ‘Visiting local vendors and restaurants offering local food stimulates my curiosity’ (CU1), and ‘Visiting local vendors and restaurants offering local food favors my imagination’ (CU2). These items were taken from the study of Tommasetti et al. (2018) and amended accordingly for this study.

Education experience (EDUExp)

The variable education was measured through 04 items taken from the study of Pine and Gilmore (1999). ‘During my visit to local Restaurants, the experience was highly educational to me’ (EDU1), ‘During my visit to local Restaurants the experience has made me more knowledgeable’ (EDU2), ‘During my visit to local Restaurants it was a real learning experience’ (EDU3) and ‘During my visit to local Restaurants my curiosity was stimulated to learn new things’ (EDU4).

Esthetic experience (ESTH)

The variable Esthetic Experience was measured through 02 statements taken from the study of Pine and Gilmore (2001). ‘During my visit to local Restaurants, just being there was very pleasant’ (ESTH1), ‘During my visit to local Restaurants I felt a real sense of harmony’ (ESTH2).

Behavioral intention (BI)

The behavioral intention was measured to assess respondents’ willingness to consume traditional Kashmiri cuisines with a scale consisting of 03 items ‘I will recommend attending restaurants offering local/traditional food items’ (BI1), ‘I intend to attend restaurants offering local/traditional food items in the future’ (BI2) and ‘I will say positive things about restaurants offering local/traditional food items’ (BI3). The statements were taken from the study of Tommasetti et al. (2018).

Actual behaviour (AB)

Finally, to measure the actual behavior, an adaptation of the scale proposed by De Cannière et al. (2009) was adopted: ‘I used to go to restaurants to consume traditional food’ (AB1), ‘I spend enough time in restaurants to consume traditional food’ (AB2)and ‘The number of my visits restaurants offering traditional food is high’ (AB3).’Respondents could indicate how much they agreed with the statements for each item. Specifically, a 5-point Likert scale was used in the questionnaire ranging from 1 (to indicate a strong disagreement) to 5 (to indicate a strong agreement)’. The confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) technique was applied to test the study’s variables’ unidimensionality. And lastly, a Structured Equation Model (SEM) was carried out to test the proposed hypotheses and measure the constructs’ relationship. Smart PLs 3.0 was used for CFA and hypotheses testing.

Common method bias

Researchers have developed several statistical techniques to control for the effect of Common Method Bias (CMB). The present investigation CBM was checked through Harman single-factor according to which if a single factor emerges or one general factor will account for the majority of the covariance (i.e. more than 50%) among the measures then it is concluded that a substantial amount of common method variance is present. The results of Harman single-factor for the present examination explained 38.873 % of the variance, thereby indicating that common method bias in the data was not present.

Study settings

Kashmir, a geographically located region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, is sometimes acclaimed as the ‘Paradise on Earth’. Kashmir is widely recognised for its breath taking natural scenery, which is distinguished by lush valleys, imposing mountains covered with snow, and serene bodies of water. Furthermore, the region is characterised not just by its visually appealing landscapes but also by its culturally significant culinary traditions. Kashmiri cuisine exhibits a harmonious amalgamation of several culinary traditions, encompassing Persian, Central Asian, and Indian influences, culminating in a distinctive and palatable gourmet encounter. The culinary style is distinguished by its fragrant spices, use of dehydrated fruits, and deliberate cooking methods that yield intricate and flavorful outcomes. The culinary traditions of Kashmir are emblematic of the historical, geographical, and cultural intricacies of the region.

Population of the study

The population of the study was domestic tourists and locals consuming traditional Kashmiri dishes.

Data collection, sampling technique and sample size

The researcher collected the data for the study using both primary and secondary sources of information. A structured questionnaire consisting of various statements representing various constructs of the study was used for primary data collection. 935 questionnaires were distributed during March–June 2022 among the respondents using one of the types of Non-probability sampling technique, i.e. convenience sampling method. Non-probability sampling techniques are used in a wide range of studies in social science research (Rowley, 2014). In fact, non-probability sampling is commonly used and is considered more appropriate and suitable in fieldwork research (Bryman & Bell, 2015).

Response rate

The process of identifying outliers involved the computation of Z-scores for each item. It was determined that all Z-scores fell within the permissible range of ±3.29, as advised by Tabachnick and Fidell (1996). When encountering questionnaires with missing values, the decision was made to exclude these questionnaires entirely from the statistical analysis.

Only 387 valid questionnaires were used for the final analysis after removing the invalid questionnaires, which in total represent 41.39% valid percentage. Questionnaires were eliminated: (1) when they had many unanswered questions (missing data). (2) When respondents gave the same score on all items of the questionnaire, which may indicate that the questions were not answered seriously by the respondents.

Ethical considerations

Throughout the data gathering procedure, a rigorous commitment was made to adhere to ethical norms in relation to the respondents. In order to prioritise the rights and well-being of the participants, the researchers sought informed consent from each individual, ensuring that they possessed a thorough comprehension of the objective and potential consequences of the research. The preservation of anonymity and confidentiality was upheld with great rigour, effectively protecting personal information from any form of disclosure.

Data analysis and results

As shown in the demographic table (Table 1), the sample was almost equally split between males and females, with 52.72% males (n = 204) and 47.28% females (n = 183).

Table 1. Demographic profile of respondents.

Characteristics	Number (n)	Percentage
Gender	Male (204)	52.72%
	Female (183)	47.28%
Age	18 − 30 years (209)	54.00%
	31–43 years (96)	24.80%
	44–55 years (67)	17.32%
	56 Above (15)	3.88%
Education	Elementary school (07)	1.80%
	Middle school (11)	2.84%
	High school (14)	3.63%
	Bachelor’s degree (187)	48.32%
	Master’s degree (152)	39.28%
	Higher (16)	4.13%
Occupation	Employee (196)	50.64%
	Unemployed (76)	19.64%
	Student (100)	25.84%
	Retired (15)	3.88%
Annual income	Less than Rs. 50,000 (09)	2.33%
	Rs. 50,000 to 1,00, 000 (32)	8.27%
	Rs. 1,00, 000 to 1,50, 000 (67)	17.31%
	Rs 1,50,000 to 2, 00, 000 (136)	35.14%
	Above 2, 00, 000 (143)	36.95%

Table 1 shows the demographic profile of the respondents. From Table 1, the results showed that 52.72% were male respondents (n = 204) whereas 47.28% were female respondents (n = 183). The majority of the respondents were between in the age group of 18–30 years (n = 209, 54.00%), followed by the age group of 31–43 years (n = 96, 24.80%), and only 15% (n = 15) of the respondents were above the age of 55 years. Also, the findings showed that most of the respondents who took part in the survey were well qualified (48.32%, n = 187 were Bachelor’s degree holders, followed by Master’s degree holders (n = 152, 39.28%; and 4.13%, n = 26 were those who have attained higher qualification). The results also showed that the majority of the respondents were employed (n = 196, 50.64%) and 19.64 (n = 76) were unemployed, whereas 3.88% (n = 15) were retired and 25.84% (n = 100) were students. Furthermore, the findings showed that36.95% (n = 143) were those respondents who had an annual income above 2, 00 000, followed by those who had an annual income within the range of Rs. 1,50,000 to 2, 00, 000 (35.14%, n = 136), followed by those respondents whose income ranges between Rs. 1,00, 000 to 1,50, 000 (n = 67,17.31%).

Initially, the data was screened for missing values and unengaged responses. After the screening, the instrument’s reliability was checked through Cronbach’s alpha. The Cronbach Alpha results for each construct were above the recommended threshold of 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978). The results of reliability statistics are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Results of reliability test.

Dimension	No. of items	Cronbach alpha (α) value
Attitude	03	.935
Subjective norms	04	.940
Perceived behavioural control	04	.939
Perceived usefulness	02	.889
Curiosity	02	.878
Education	04	.918
Behavioural intention	03	.904
Actual behaviour	03	.831

Note: Cronbach Alpha (α) for all the constructs is above the threshold level.70.

Measurement model

In the measurement model, the item loadings were first checked and were found above the recommended value of .60 (Chin, 1998). Composite reliability (CR) and AVE were used to check the convergent validity of the constructs. Both the values were above the recommended value of .07 and .50 (Hair et al., 2006), holding the convergent validity. Finally, the discriminant validity was assessed. According to Fornell and Larcker (1981), the discriminant validity is upheld ‘when the square root of the AVE (diagonal values) of each construct is larger than its corresponding correlation coefficients’. The overall results of CFA are shown in Tables 3 and 4. After this model fit was checked this indicated that data fits the model very well with Chi-square = 286.772; Degrees of freedom = 164; Probability level = .000; CMIN/DF = 1.743; CFI = 0.942; IFI = 0.952; GFI =0.932; AGFI = 0.905; TLI = 0.945 and RMSEA = 0.043.

Table 3. Results of confirmatory factor analysis.

Dimensions	Items	Loadings	AVE	CR
Attitude (AT)			0.708	0.879
Consuming local food is a good idea.	(AT1)	0.834
I like knowing about local food items.	(AT2)	0.790
Restaurants that serve local food adopt appropriate behavior	(AT3)	0.897
Subjective Norms (SN)			0.698	0.902
People who influence my behavior think it is preferable to consume local/ traditional food	(SN1)	0.720
People in my organization (school, university, company, etc.) consider that local/traditional food consumption is useful.	(SN2)	0.854
In general, people support the consumption of local/ traditional food.	(SN3)	0.867
People who are important to me want me to taste local food	(SN4)	0.891
Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC)			0.713	0.908
I would like to attend restaurants that serve/offer local and traditional food items.	(PBC1)	0.830
I decide I will go to restaurants that serve/offer local food items.	(PBC2)	0.768
I think I have the resources, the knowledge, and the skills necessary to understand if a restaurant serves/offers local food items.	(PBC3)	0.955
I am capable of consuming local food when I go to restaurants/local vendors.	(PBC4)	0.813
Perceived Usefulness (PUS)			0.739	0.850
I consider the local food items as a useful element for health.	(PUS1)	0.863
Keeping local food items on the menu increases restaurant productivity.	(PUS2)	0.856
Curiosity (CU)			0.691	0.816
Visiting local vendors and restaurants offering local food stimulates my curiosity.	(CU1)	0.904
Visiting local vendors and restaurants offering local food favors my imagination.	(CU2)	0.751
Education (EDU)			0.652	0.880
During my visit to local Restaurants, the experience was highly educational to me.	(EDU1)	0.838
During my visit to local Restaurants, the experience has made me more knowledgeable.	(EDU2)	0.808
During my visit to local Restaurants, it was a real learning experience.	(EDU3)	0.615
During my visit to local Restaurants, my curiosity was stimulated to learn new things.	(EDU4)	0.936
Esthetic(ESTH)			0.667	0.800
During my visit to local Restaurants, just being there was very pleasant		0.869
During my visit to local Restaurants, I felt a real sense of harmony.		0.761
Behavioral Intention (BI)			0.745	0.898
I will recommend attending restaurants offering local/traditional food items	(BI1)	0.815
I intend to attend restaurants offering local/traditional food items in the future.	(BI2)	0.858
I will say positive things about restaurants offering local/traditional food items.	(BI3)	0.914
Actual Behavior (AB)			0.761	0.905
I used to go to restaurants to consume traditional food	(AB1)	0.844
I spend enough time in restaurants to consume traditional food	(AB2)	0.858
The number of my visits restaurants offering traditional food is high.	(AB3)	0.914

Table 4. Results of convergent validity and discriminant validity.

	CR	AVE	AB	ATT	BI	CU	EDU	ESTH	PBC	PUS	SN
AB	0.905	0.761	0.872
ATT	0.879	0.708	0.342	0.841
BI	0.898	0.745	0.642	0.379	0.863
CU	0.816	0.691	0.519	0.159	0.411	0.831
EDU	0.880	0.652	0.333	0.84	0.356	0.147	0.807
ESTH	0.800	0.667	0.294	0.273	0.361	0.163	0.324	0.816
PBC	0.908	0.713	0.782	0.376	0.548	0.347	0.284	0.26	0.844
PUS	0.850	0.739	0.343	0.250	0.504	0.390	0.283	0.261	0.247	0.859
SN	0.902	0.689	0.521	0.246	0.805	0.317	0.328	0.329	0.484	0.372	0.830

‘Note: The values in the above matrix’s diagonal are the square root of the AVE.

CR = Composite Reliability, AVE = Average Variance Extracted.

AB = Actual Behaviour, ATT = Attitude, BI = Behavioural Intention, CU = Curiosity, EDU = Education, ESTH = Esthetic, PBC = Perceived Behavioural Control, PUS = Perceived Usefulness, SN = Subjective Norms’.

Hypotheses testing

After confirmatory factor analysis, the next step is to test the proposed set of hypotheses through SEM. As hypothesized, attitude (β = 0.268, p <.05), subjective norm (β = 0.641, p < .05), and perceived behavioral control (β = 0.106, p < .05)were significant positive predictors of intention to consume traditional food products. Furthermore, Curiosity (β = 0.077, p <.05), Education (β = 0.189, p <.05), and Perceived Usefulness (β = 0.183, p <.05) were also significant positive predictors of intention to consume traditional food products. Thus, H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, and H6 were supported. Besides, the findings showed that Esthetic (β = 0.050, p > 0.05) was not the significant predictor of intention to consume Kashmiri traditional food. Thus H7 was not supported. In terms of the impact of the predictors of behavioral intention, the highest impact was by Subjective norms (b = 0.641), followed by attitude (β = 0.268), education (β = 0.189), pursued usefulness (b = 0.183), Perceived Behavioural Control (β = 0.106), and curiosity (β = 0.077). The impact of esthetic on behavioral intention was statistically insignificant (β = suppor, p > .05). The hypotheses results are summarized in Table 5. In contrast, the results of structural equation modeling and the path coefficient are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The estimated SEM path model. Source: Authors’ elaboration.

Table 5. Hypothesis testing results.

	Path coefficients	(STDEV)	T statistics	P values
Attitude –> Behavioural intention	0.268	0.096	2.787	0.005	Supported
Behavioural intention –> Actual behaviour	0.642	0.035	18.113	0.000	Supported
Curiosity –> Behavioural intention	0.077	0.030	2.539	0.011	Supported
Education –> Behavioural intention	0.189	0.097	1.975	0.049	Supported
Esthetic –> Behavioural intention	0.050	0.029	1.704	0.089	Not Supported
Perceived behavioural control –> Behavioural intention	0.106	0.039	2.708	0.007	Supported
Perceived usefulness –> Behavioural intention	0.183	0.034	5.404	0.000	Supported
Subjective norms –> Behavioural intention	0.641	0.051	12.593	0.000	Supported

Discussion

Based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the present study aimed to amend and extend the TBP by adding new constructs, including curiosity, perceived usefulness, educational experience, and esthetic experience, to determine tourists’ behavior towards Indian traditional food consumption. Thus the present investigation adopted the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior (ETPB) to investigate the tourists’ Consumption Behavior toward Kashmiri as one of the Indian Cuisine.

The results of this study are consistent with previous investigations undertaken by Khanna et al. (2022) and Ajzen (2015). The buying behaviour of state-branded food products was explored in a study conducted by Shin et al., 2020, yielding comparable results. The findings of this study suggest that there is a substantial relationship between visitors’ attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control in relation to their intention to consume Kashmiri traditional food. Additionally, it was found that the intention of tourists to engage in consumption activities was a strong predictor of their subsequent actual consumption of Indian foods. The results obtained in this study align with other studies that utilised the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) framework to examine consumer behaviour. An investigation conducted by Shah Alam and Mohamed Sayuti (2011) explored the purchase behaviour of consumers about halal food in Malaysia, employing the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model. Their findings were consistent with the present study’s outcomes.

This investigation’s findings have contributed to the theoretical contributions to the existing literature and have provided insights into tourists’ intentions and actual behavior towards the traditional cuisines of India. The examination results validate the claim that if a tourist’s attitude, subjective norms, perceived control behavior, curiosity, perceived usefulness, and education towards local cuisines are positive, they will be more likely to have the intention to eat local food. Thus the findings confirm that the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior (ETPB) model is a research framework useful for explaining the tourist’s intention to consume local traditional food.

The investigation findings showed that subjective norms had been highly and positively related to the intention to taste Kashmiri traditional food. This finding is consistent with Karijin et al. (2007) study found the same results. This study also confirms other studies like Kamariah and Muslim (2007), which found that subjective norms are essential. This is matched with the findings of this study that subjective norm is crucial in influencing tourists’ purchase intention, especially in India. Thus the results displayed that subjective norms emerged as the most significant determinant of traditional food purchase intention among the ETPB constructs. Even the idea of a subjective standard has piqued the interest of several researchers over the years, even though early studies focused on the underlying mechanisms rather than the implications for people’s behavioral intentions. People’s behavioral intention is formed by the subjective norm, which has a positive or negative influence and encourages them to engage in some behaviors and avoid others.

The findings of the study revealed a significant and substantial correlation between attitudes and the intention to consume traditional Kashmiri cuisine, which is consistent with the findings of previous research studies (Bissonnette & Contento, 2001; Chan, 2001). Nevertheless, it is imperative to acknowledge that views in isolation may not provide a thorough explanation for consumer behaviour. Hence, it is imperative to consider supplementary variables, among which the subjective norm holds significance. The results of the investigation unveiled a robust and affirmative association between subjective norms and the inclination to partake in Kashmiri traditional cuisine. This finding indicates that the subjective norms, which refer to individuals’ impression of societal expectations and preferences, have a substantial impact on their inclination to experience traditional Kashmiri cuisine. This discovery is in line with previous research conducted by Bissonnette and Contento in 2001, as well as the study conducted by Chan in the same year. It is probable that these research have examined analogous ideas and identified similar patterns with respect to the impact of subjective norms on customers’ behavioural intentions.

Implications

Managerial implications

The managerial implications of this study provide practical insights for enterprises and tourism locations that aim to promote traditional Kashmiri cuisine. In the realm of dining establishments, the focus extends beyond the gustatory qualities of the cuisine, encompassing the endeavour to craft a comprehensive and engaging encounter for patrons. The presentation of menus that transcend conventional enumerations of items has the potential to pique the curiosity of clients. Restaurants can generate interest among tourists by incorporating information pertaining to the cultural value, ingredients, and traditional preparation methods associated with each meal. Additionally, the study posits that extending the scope beyond the confines of the plate has the potential to augment the overall experiential quality. The provision of educational opportunities, such as participatory cooking courses or food-centric cultural festivals, might facilitate a more profound comprehension of Indian culinary traditions among tourists. Partnerships with local influencers, esteemed culinary professionals, and specialists in cultural matters can foster a prevailing perception that engaging with regional gastronomy is an essential component of the trip endeavour. This has the potential to incentivize travellers to venture beyond their familiar culinary preferences and wholeheartedly appreciate the rich tapestry of traditional Indian cuisine. In order to cater to diverse preferences and dietary needs, it would be advantageous for restaurants to provide a selection of portion sizes and customizable choices. The presence of flexibility in dining options can enhance tourists’ sense of control in selecting their meals, so motivating them to actively engage in exploring the culinary offerings of the local region.

The proposed model in the study can provide various managerial insights. The framework offers empirical evidence of the dimensions determining the tourist’s behavioral intention and consumption behavior. More precisely, the model can be considered a tool for the assumption of decision-making to enhance the consumption pattern and increase local food vendors’ business. The results of this investigation provide a few critical implications for marketers, local vendors, and hoteliers serving traditional food. The findings revealed that subjective norm has the highest effect on the purchase intention of regional cuisines. Since subjective norms are a function of normative beliefs, various stakeholders’ marketing activities should encourage the tourists to taste different cuisines. More significant effects regarding consumption can be achieved by emphasizing the general growth in traditional food/cuisines’ consumption patterns. More tourists will be inclined to taste the local food by seeing the more significant tourists consuming the same.

The other variable that local food vendors/restaurants/hotels should focus on is perceived behavioral control, which has been demonstrated to affect tourists’ intentions; individuals will pick what they want to control by having the important resources. To be more specific, it may be favorable to make individuals feel that they have all the resources they need to get to a restaurant offering typical India traditional food. Similarly productive regarding business achievement, this could be characterized as business strategies pointed toward animating customers’ curiosity, thought about ready to direct their behavioral intentions and, subsequently, their actual behaviour; for a local food vendors/restaurant/hotel, arousing the interest of people is the initial step to ‘convert’ their status from possible buyers to real clients, preparing in which different factors can be utilized to attempt to draw in and retain them over the long haul.

Theoretical contribution

The theoretical implications of the study have wide-ranging ramifications for the comprehension of consumer behaviour, particularly in cross-cultural contexts. The adaptability of the Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (ETPB) is shown in its effective integration of additional components, including curiosity, perceived usefulness, educational experience, and aesthetic experience. The aforementioned adaption highlights the model’s capacity to comprehensively capture the intricate dynamics of various elements that impact consumer intentions and behaviours. The involvement of subjective norms is of particular significance as it underscores the impact of society and cultural factors on consumer decision-making. The findings of the study reaffirm the robust correlation between positive attitudes and intended behaviours, so strengthening the concept that favourable ideas towards a behaviour, such as the willingness to taste Indian cuisine, exert a major impact on the actual decision to partake in it. This observation holds significance not only within the context of food consumption but also in relation to numerous other consumer behaviours. Moreover, the research underscores the role of traditional cuisine as a means of fostering cultural connectivity within the realm of tourism. The simultaneous enhancement of tourists’ experiences and contribution to the preservation of cultural heritage can be achieved by promoting local food in destinations.

The investigation results can act as a useful tool for both scholars and practitioners, being able to suggest interesting theoretical and managerial implications. In the first place, the investigation could help each of the individuals who study people’s behavior and, more significantly, consumer behavior. It adds to the scientific literature identified with the components setting off human decisions. All other originally formulated hypotheses were supported except for one hypothesis, indicating that dimensions added to the TPB significantly impact the tourists’ consumption intention. Furthermore, the work proposed augmentation of the TPB by presenting four different variables perceived usefulness, curiosity, educational experience, and esthetic experience, thereby formulating ETPB. Among the four added to the TPB, three further dimensions could also influence behavioral intention and, indirectly, the consumers’ behavior to choose Kashmiri traditional food. Adding more variables to the TPB suggests to researchers the significance of not being restricted to the TPB utilization to investigate the phenomena of conditioning the selection of eateries. However, to propose, based on what has been demonstrated by past examinations, new and more extensive conceptualizations. The framework adopted in the current study offers a potential advancement in theory that has the capacity to identify, to a satisfactory degree of approximation, the variables that impact consumer behavior in the realm of consuming. The present empirical test and conceptual framework can be situated within the existing body of literature, serving as a catalyst for the development of additional theoretical models that have the potential to enhance our understanding of consumer decision-making processes in scientific research. The present study suggests a potential framework to direct future investigations in the field of behavioral marketing. It advocates for a departure from conventional theoretical models and encourages the incorporation of novel approaches that encompass supplementary variables that have gained significance over time.

Conclusion

The culmination of present study has brought forth compelling insights into the predictors influencing tourists’ intentions to consume traditional food products. Our investigation, grounded in the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), provided a comprehensive analysis of the interplay between various factors and their impact on behavioral intentions, as validated by the empirical results. As hypothesized, the findings confirm the significance of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control as positive predictors of the intention to consume traditional food products. Tourists’ favorable attitudes toward traditional cuisine, the influence of societal norms, and the perceived ability to control their behavior all contribute significantly to their intention to engage in traditional food consumption during their travels. These results align with the foundational principles of the TPB, highlighting the robustness of this theoretical framework in understanding and predicting tourists’ behaviors.

Moreover, the current study goes beyond the traditional TPB factors, incorporating additional predictors to provide a more nuanced understanding of tourists’ intentions. Curiosity, education, and perceived usefulness emerged as significant positive predictors, offering valuable insights into the multifaceted nature of tourists’ decision-making processes regarding traditional food consumption. Tourists with higher levels of curiosity and education, as well as those who perceive traditional food as useful, are more likely to express a positive intention to consume such culinary offerings. In terms of the impact of these predictors on behavioral intention, subjective norms emerged as the most influential factor, signifying the powerful role of social influence in shaping tourists’ decisions regarding traditional food consumption. The hierarchy of impact, with attitude following closely behind, suggests that both internal attitudes and external social norms are crucial determinants of behavioral intention.

In conclusion, our study not only validates the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior in the context of traditional food consumption but also extends its applicability by incorporating additional predictors. These findings have practical implications for destination marketers and policymakers, emphasizing the importance of shaping positive attitudes, social norms, and perceived behavioral control to promote the consumption of traditional foods among tourists. The nuanced insights provided by this study contribute to the enrichment of our understanding of tourist behavior, paving the way for more tailored and effective strategies in the realm of culinary tourism.

Limitations and directions for future study

There are several limitations associated with the present study. The investigation adopted the TBP and added limited constructs to formulate the ETPB. In the future, other variables like health consciousness to consume traditional food, Group conformity, Confidence, etc., should be added to TPB to test the contribution of these variables towards tourists’ purchase intention. The present study does not include any mediator to test the proposed hypotheses, so future research should use mediators like satisfaction to test the proposed relationship. Moreover, future studies should use the moderators like demographic characteristics to test the role of moderators in framing behavioral intention and actual behavior.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ramjit Singh

Dr Ramjit Singh is working as Sr. Assistant Professor in the Department of Tourism Studies at the Central University of Kashmir, India. He is a Doctorate in Tourism management from SHTM, University of Jammu, India. He has more than 15 years of teaching and Industry experience in Hospitality and Tourism. His research areas of interest are Sustainable Tourism & climate change, crisis management, Experiential Tourism, creative and social entrepreneurship, and business Resilience. He has participated in many research conferences, seminars, and workshops and has many research papers to his credit. He is presently the departmental coordinator for academic affairs.

Mudasir Ahmad Mir

Dr. Mudasir Ahmad Mir is working as Assistant Professor in the Department of Tourism Hospitality & Leisure Studies at the University of Kashmir, India. He has a Doctoral Degree (Ph.D.) in the discipline of Tourism. His research areas of interest are Sustainable Tourism, Responsible Tourism, Destination Marketing, Services Marketing and Tourist Behaviour. He has been a recipient of UGC-NET JRF and SRF Fellowship. He has participated in numerous conferences, seminars, and workshops and has some of his research work published in reputable international journals. He has three years of Teaching Experience. He has great expertise in SPSS, AMOS and SmartPLS.

Adil Amin Nazki

Dr. Adil Amin Nazki is working as Assistant Professor in the Department of Tourism Studies at the Central University of Kashmir, India. He has a Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D) and Master of Philosophy (M.Phil) in the discipline of Tourism. His research areas of interest is tourist behaviour, creative tourism & destination crisis management. He has been a recipient of the UGC-SRF Fellowship. He has participated in numerous conferences, seminars, and workshops and has had some of his research work published in reputable international journals. He has three years of Teaching Experience.