Building positive Zimbabwean tourism festival, event and destination brand image and equity: a systematic literature review

Abstract

This article aims to explore the concept of tourism festival and event destination branding and relate it to practices in Zimbabwean festivals and tourism events. The article is therefore based on the following objectives: to understand the concept of tourism festival, event and destination brand image in Zimbabwe; to explain its essence and importance in Zimbabwe; to explore the brand process by mainly looking at market analysis, brand development, brand positioning, brand personality, brand implementation, brand communication and brand tracking; to understand the necessary critical success factors; to explore the constructs of brand equity; and to analyse previous models and discussion in tourism festival and event destination brand equity. A systematic literature review was applied to gather relevant literature related to the study. The process involves a predetermined and comprehensive approach to searching, analysing and synthesising extant literature. Results showed that the image of country’s imagea and vital role in building a positive or negative perception towards a tourism destination image. However, it is essential to note that the image of a country might take a long time to restore itself, even going on for generations. The research study contributes to future research directions by unpacking existing research gaps and advancing knowledge relating to tourism festivals, events and destination brand image in Zimbabwe.

IMPACT STATEMENT

Zimbabwe, as a tourism destination, has suffered a reduction in tourists arrivals and influx because of the perceived political instability. It is challenging to market and promote a tourism destination with a perceived hostile political environment. The image of the country plays a vital role in building a positive or negative perception towards a tourism destination image. However, it is essential to note that the image of a country might take a long time to restore itself, even going on for generations. There are few studies about the supremacy of country image over destination image or on strategies that can help destination image to overpower the image of a country. Destination marketing organisations should therefore find novel ways that might help to generate a positive perception of a tourism destination even when a country has a negative image to the outside world. Effective promotion of cultural heritage, natural heritage and other aspects of a destination might help improve destination’s image.

Keywords:

• Tourism festival
• destination brand image and equity
• globalisation
• Zimbabwe

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Pier Luigi Sacco, Humanities, IULM University, Milano, Italy

SUBJECTS:

• Events
• Hospitality
• Tourism

Introduction

Globalisation has intensified marketing pressures for tourism destinations in their operations at a national, regional and international level (Klimek, 2013, p. 27). The dynamics of the twenty-first century have resulted in immense competition, causing organisations in the tourism and hospitality business to adopt new strategic management and operational marketing processes (Gustavo, 2013, p. 13). Branding has become one of the essential marketing strategies in withstanding the competitive nature of the tourism industry when offering products and services to tourists (Nyagadza, 2021; Nyagadza et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2020c; Yusof et al., 2014, p. 1). Zimbabwe, as a tourism destination, has also experienced various changes due to globalisation, induced by its socio-economic and political state of affairs. In order to survive and adhere to the changing market demands, Zimbabwe as a tourism destination has also adopted branding as a marketing strategy, to hold a high-valued global market position through an extensive brand identity. Destination image is a concept which is based on understating the perceptions that potential tourists have about a destination (Kim & Perdue, 2011). It mainly involves managing tourists’ perception towards a destination and its offerings (Pan & Li, 2011, p. 134). The tourist industry contributes 12% of Zimbabwe’s GDP. Tourism is one of the most diverse industries in the world due to its integrating effect that spans practically all sectors of the economy (Makoni et al., 2022). A tourism destination that is perceived to have a good image is more likely to attract more tourists (Martins, 2015, p. 4), able to create employment (3.9% and contribute $8.8 trillion in revenue and created 319 million jobs to the global economy) (Nyagadza et al., 2022). The use of marketing communication is essential in creating a positive image of a tourism destination, though it is not the only means. Various factors help in uplifting the image of a tourism destination, and for this study, where branding is one key factor. An effective brand can help in improving the image of a tourism festival and event destination (Pan & Li, 2011, p. 134), especially when it is communicated using various media. Also, there is the power of word of mouth when those who have had a personal experience of a tourism destination become a trusted source of information for potential tourists.

Literature review

It is also important to note that destination branding is not the only prerequisite to changing the image of a tourism destination. Even though the brand of a tourism destination is the leading face and voice in communicating to the destination’s external environment, other factors, such as the source of information helps to influence the image of a tourism destination brand. A review of printed newspapers confirms that the news headlines and discussions in these media influence the image of a tourism festival and event destination (Mohammad Shafiee et al., 2018). The newspapers have proved to be a convenient source for the public to make personal decisions based on socio-economic and political events happening in a tourism destination (Mohammad Shafiee et al., 2018). They can positively or negatively influence society towards a particular decision. As noted, Zimbabwe as a tourism destination has been undercut by negative media publicity. Recent newspaper headlines and discussions which are brewing negative perceptions over the tourism destination include: ‘Govt at odds over rand adoption’ (Daily News Newspaper, 2017b); and ‘Fuel Prices go up’ (The Financial Gazzette, 2017). These issues convey a sinking economy, which can then scare away potential tourists and any other likely investors. Also, from a social perspective, the printed newspapers have contributed to tarnishing the image of Zimbabwe tourism destination using headlines and discussions like ‘Cops can urinate in public: Minister’ (Daily News Newspaper, 2017); and ‘Rowdy youths disrupt meeting’ (The Herald Newspaper, 2017a). From a political perspective, there have been adverse reports, such as ‘Escalating Zim crises point to disaster’ (Daily News Newspaper, 2017a). This informs the potential tourists that there is a political crisis in the country that makes the tourism destination unsafe for any visits. However, the newspapers can construct a positive destination image from their headings and discussions like ‘Tourism sector records increase in occupancy’ (The Herald Newspaper, 2017b). This reduces the perceived risk by potential tourists as it means that the tourism destination is becoming more attractive such that more people are willing to visit than before.

There is no universally agreed-upon source of information that effectively improves the image of a destination. It is the duty of destination marketers and destination marketing organisations to craft strategies that improve the positive image of a tourism destination (Paunovic, 2014, p. 173); and even counter the negative perception that potential tourists have of the image of a destination. The process of the destination image is complex to some extent since it is derived from the image of a country and then goes down to the destination (Giraldi et al., 2011; Nyagadza et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2020c). If the image of a country is negative, then the tourism destination will be viewed negatively. Therefore, the operating environment of a country, as a construct of socio-economic and political factors, has the power to influence a positive or negative image of a tourism destination (Alvarez & Campo, 2014). Many tourism destinations have developed a negative image due to perceived hostile political environment (Mohammad Shafiee et al., 2016). Zimbabwe, as a tourism destination has suffered a reduction in tourists arrivals and influx because of the perceived political instability. It is challenging to market and promote a tourism destination with a perceived hostile political environment. The image of the country plays aa vital role in building a positive or negative perception towards a tourism destination image (Assante et al., 2014). However, it is essential to note that the image of a country might take a long time to restore itself, even going on for generations (Bakhshayesh et al., 2022). There are few studies about the supremacy of country image over destination image or on strategies that can help destination image to overpower the image of a country. Destination Marketing Organisations should therefore find novel ways that might help to generate a positive perception of a tourism destination even when a country has a negative image to the outside world. Effective promotion of cultural heritage, natural heritage and other aspects of a destination might help improve the destination’s image. However, the power of branding as a marketing and positive image catalyst has been seen in the transformation of Spain, New Zealand and other countries as tourism destinations in past years.

Image is vital in creating the attractiveness of a tourism destination in its target markets (Mohamad et al., 2011, p.2). There is a need to develop comprehensive mechanisms that helps in promoting a positive image of a tourism destination. Many tourism destinations have addressed negative image by hosting and participating in international expos, which help in improving positive perception of their destination to the world (Mohammad Shafiee et al., 2021). This is because building a positive image is both an inward and outward approach, which requires effective interaction with the potential tourists and suppliers of tourism. Communication is vital in building a positive image of a tourism destination. Media then becomes a strategic tool that can link a tourism destination and its potential tourists through its ability to improve communication and change perceptions. Media can cultivate a positive image of a tourism destination (Muzapu & Sibanda, 2016, p. 58). Destination marketers should be able to develop and apply the most effective type of media that helps improve a positive image of the tourism destination. There is a limited contribution from various global researchers on the best media to use to improve destination image. According to perspectives, imagery is increasingly important in promoting tourism destinations through expressions and messages (Molina et al., 2010). Destination image is an essential concept in managing destinations and is enhanced through information management (Sigala, 2013). Information plays an important role in destination image destination (Ishida et al., 2016, p. 1). The problem is in understanding how best to manage information in order to improve the image of Zimbabwe’s tourism destination. This study resorted to print media to convey information that might improve Zimbabwe tourism destination image.

Methodology

This article is based on the systematic review of secondary data sources such as academic high-impact journals, policy reports, credible online newspapers, and reports from national and international organisations. The process involves a predetermined and comprehensive approach to searching, analysing and synthesising extant literature. The purpose is to conclude and identify the research gaps. Usually, the systematic literature review is used as it is recommended for replicability in public policy studies (Rukasha et al., 2021). The initial stage of the review process involved the refining and defining the research objectives, which were in line with tourism festival, destination brand image and equity. After this was done, we conducted database selection, where there was a need to check on the databases which published peer-reviewed articles, reports, practitioner viewpoints and proceedings on the topic under study. The databases used include Taylor & Francis, Scopus, ProQuest, Google Scholar, Emerald Insight, Science Direct, EBSCO Host and Web of Science. Due to validity and reliability considerations, we avoided including some sources of literature from unregistered online and newspapers, and this was done from March to July 2022. In line with this, secondly, we identified the critical terms meant for optimising the search process. These included tourism festivals, destination brand image and equity, globalisation, Zimbabwe etc. Succeeding this stage was an article search. We manually searched the articles from the selected databases. A total of 124 probable articles emerged from the search process. Compatibility was conducted to check how and relevant the selected articles were during the evaluation process (Rukasha et al., 2021). The researchers checked the search terms in the titles, the keywords, abstracts and full texts of the identified articles. Alignment to the research objectives was made to is ensure a straightforward approach to the whole process. During the process, 47 articles were dropped due to duplication, irrelevancy and inappropriateness. The remainder articles were further evaluated by other independent researchers for methodological quality using the Oxford Quality Scale (Muposhi et al., 2021). A minimum threshold of 3 out of 5 was required to include the article in the research study. Lastly, data extraction and population were done in line with the provisions of the content analysis procedure (Nyagadza, 2021; Nyagadza et al., 2019, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d). The population procedure was executed by comparing, integrating and summarizing themes from the systematic review process.

Results

The essence of tourism festival, event and destination branding

The intensification of competition in tourism markets globally has resulted in authorities recognising destination branding as a tool to use in marketing promotion and management of tourism resources (Kim & Lehto, 2013, p. 117). Traditionally, brands have been used to identify available products mainly using names and symbols, and now the concept is applied to marketing services (Pike, 2010, p. 127). Even with minimal practice in other destinations, the advent of destination branding has resulted in many tourism marketers viewing destinations as brands, such that they have applied the concept from generic product branding theories to destinations (Kim & Lehto, 2013, p. 118). This shows that the traditional identity of products through brands can still apply to destination marketing. Marketing is done through the use of various objects and designs such as terms, symbols, signs that represent their brands or a combination of all with the advantage of differentiating own products from those of competitors (Kiliç & Adem, 2012, p. 96; Nyagadza, 2019). It is through the concept of branding that a unique proposition is created, which helps to differentiate products and services provided by one business from those of competitors (Im et al., 2012, p. 385).

Failure to manage the branding process is detrimental since the process revolves around brand elements mix, brand identity, brand image building and marketing activities (Im et al., 2012, p. 388). There is little research on the role of destination branding in destination marketing, particularly in a Zimbabwean context. The discussions provided by various researchers showed that destination branding helps improve marketing of tourism destinations through positioning and differentiating the destination from others. Therefore, destination branding is indispensable in contemporary competitive markets dominated by producers and suppliers of homogenous tourism products and services. There are many existing tourism destinations globally, sometimes offering similar products and services, which call for differentiation as a marketing strategy, to which branding is a key and promising ingredient. Destination branding also helps in destination marketing by promoting the identity of a destination in a global market. Zimbabwe’s destination marketing success can be measured by its brand performance. The current situation shows that Zimbabwe, as a destination brand, is struggling to stand its market dominance reflected by the continuous re-branding exercises. According to Morrison (2012), a good tourism destination brand should be market-tested and well-accepted by all stakeholders. The fact that Zimbabwe as a destination brand keeps on changing can be due to its failure to perform positively on the global market and not being accepted by pertinent stakeholders.

Festival and event destination branding help in understanding how and to what extent brands are relevant to consumers, which assists destination managers in knowing how to design branding mechanisms that make them work closely with their customers (Florek & Kavaratzis, 2014, p. 103). It acts as a tool to position a destination brand such that a good destination brand should be able to effectively position a destination on the global market (Morrison, 2012). The concept of branding also plays a significant role in improving identity through the use of various symbols (Kotler & Armstrong, 2011; Nyagadza, 2021). In addition, Morrison (2012) revealed that a good brand should be able to show the personality of a destination. This means that the concept of destination branding is essential when tourists can view and align their personality with that of a given destination brand. These discussions show that the concept of destination branding is vital in promoting a destination’s brand identity, global position and personality. There is little research concerning Zimbabwe destination brand identity, positioning and personality though Ndlovu in 2009 investigated branding as a strategic tool to reposition Zimbabwe destinations through stakeholder analysis (Ndlovu, 2009).

Tourism festival, event and destination branding process

Morrison (2013) noted that destination branding is a comprehensive concept since it calls for maximum stakeholder involvement and participation. Since there are diversified views and different perspectives with regard to destination branding, there is a need to understand and clarify what characterises the tourism destination brand process, which is as follows:

Tourism festival, event and destination market analysis

Haskova (2015) indicated that at the initial stage of branding, marketers ought to carry out a market analysis. This is a process that helps in understanding how a destination is performing in a market that is dominated by other destinations. Market analysis can be regarded as a strategic approach that helps marketers to position their destination amongst competitors. It also helps in understanding the behaviour of potential tourists to provide specific products and services needed by the potential tourists. To add to this, understanding the needs and wants of the potential tourists is essential, as it helps in formulating and crafting a compelling brand that can meet the expectations of the market then. As announced by Morrison (2012), an effective destination brand ought to be easily understood by potential tourists. It is only when a practical market analysis is done that destination marketers can formulate a brand that attracts tourists. Many tourism destination brands fail to perform on the market because their meaning and the symbols used to represent them are poorly understood. This might be why Zimbabwe as a tourism destination brand, has failed to perform as expected in past years. Morrison (2012) also noted that a thriving tourism destination brand should be unique to be easily differentiated from existing competitors. In line with this view, a market analysis that is comprehensive will enable destination marketers to formulate, craft and implement a brand that is different from others existing in the same market. A market analysis becomes an essential practice in providing the tourism festival and event market with a brand that satisfies the customers and outweighs the power of competitors.

Tourism festival and event brand development

Brand development is also an essential stage in the branding process of a tourism destination. It is a highly involving stage resulting in the crafting of a brand that should be positioned in highly competitive markets (Naidoo et al., 2010, p. 96). First, it is crucial to know and understand the requirements of the core market or segment that is targeted by the brand, where it is ultimately essential to craft and develop a brand that serves all potential markets. A specific segment will help in understanding the actual gap that the brand is supposed to fill. As for Zimbabwe as a tourism destination brand, traditionally, its core market segments were Western markets, though, with time, it refocused its efforts on the Eastern tourism markets. It is essential to understand that the values and objectives of a destination brand change from one te of a market to another. Potential tourists will resist a tourism destination brand if it does not meet their expectations.

There is a need to understand where Zimbabwe as a tourism destination brand has been developed after considering the specific needs and requirements of the targeted markets, as this might be the reason for failing to perform over the years. Qualitative research in developing a tourism festival and event destination brand is also crucial in obtaining the views, perceptions, feelings and attitudes of potential tourists towards the brand. At this stage, destination market researchers ought to move to all the targeted markets and look for the key people to discuss and interview about their expectations. This helps in providing specific services and products that are needed by potential tourists. Knowing the likes and dislikes of the customers is crucial in customising the tourism offerings according to the needs and wants of the market. Zimbabwe tourism destination marketing and brand development might have failed to perform in its targeted markets because it did not qualitatively investigate the needs of these potential customers. There is minimal research on the effect of qualitative research on the performance of a destination brand, especially with regard to Zimbabwe as a tourism destination.

Tourism brand development requires consultation and involvement of all the crucial stakeholders in a festival and event tourism destination (Giannopoulos et al., 2011). The reason for stakeholder involvement is that a tourism destination is a composite of various individuals and organisations who directly and indirectly influence the meaning and objectives of a destination brand (Királová & Malachovský, 2014, p. 92). Stakeholders play a pivotal role in developing a tourism destination (Varghese, 2016, p. 104). These stakeholders include the government, destination marketing organisations, representatives of all tourism sectors, communities, and other supporting institutions. A tourism destination brand that recognises and considers the participation of all relevant stakeholders in its development is likely to be successful and survive in the market. It will get full support in its development, which helps in eliminating issues that might lead to failure when implemented in the future. There is a need to carry out a stakeholder audit. Stakeholders have a direct effect on the perception and satisfaction of potential tourists. Destination marketing organisations should be able to understand the views and inputs of various communities and operators in a tourism destination (Ruhanen, 2012). Communities might not be interested in other forms of tourism like cultural tourism, and not considering their views will result in conflicts with the tourists when they visit. This will destroy the attractiveness of a destination brand. A stakeholder audit will also help in understanding the significant issues that need to be considered to improve the meaning and representation of symbols of a destination brand. The Zimbabwe tourism destination brand ‘A World of Wonders’ ought to have done an audit of its stakeholders so that its meaning not only considers stakeholders’ views but is also understood by potential tourists. There is little research on the brand audit for Zimbabwe tourism as a destination brand.

In tourism brand development, it is also essential for destination marketers to carry out a situational analysis. This helps in understanding the operational and technical factors that positively and negatively influence the development of a compelling tourism destination brand. A situational analysis at the brand development stage is based on carrying out a SWOT analysis, to establish strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (Haskova, 2015, p.15) regarding a destination brand in its development stage. There are various factors to be considered as strengthening issues for a tourism destination brand development, but for this study, it was crucial to consider the awareness of the festival and event tourism destination on the global market. If the tourism destination is already known in the global tourism market, it will be easier to develop a brand that can be known without using more resources to improve advertising and publicity. It is also important to note that when destination marketers apply an effective medium used by tourists, this can strengthen the development of a vibrant tourism destination brand. The brand developers ought to know the type of media that is effective in selling and improving publicity of a tourism destination brand in its target markets.

Tourism festival, event and destination brand positioning

Morrison (2012) argues that a good brand should be consistent with positioning by conveying the desired image. In this case, ‘Zimbabwe A World of Wonders’ should be able to justify its meaning and demonstrate the positioning of ‘wonders’ in international terms. Kotler & Armstrong argue that: There is a need for marketers to position their brand clearly to the minds of targeted customers by looking at the three levels of positioning, which are; positioning with product attributes, positioning by associating its name with desirable benefits and positioning on solid beliefs and values (2012, p. 244). The current Zimbabwe destination brand positions itself using product attributes, and the concern is in proving whether the wonders in Zimbabwe are attractive and unique to use them in positioning the destination’s brand. Morrison (2012) postulated that a good destination brand should be unique and outstanding in a competitive market.

Tourism festival, event and destination brand personality

A good festival and event destination brand should be able to express the destination’s personality (Morrison, 2012). Zimbabwe’s previous and current brands projected a personality that might not correspond to the one perceived by its potential customers. There is a direct relationship between the self-congruity of tourists and their revisit intentions, which impacts significantly on the way that tourists view themselves in a destination (Usakli & Baloglu, 2011). From an analytic perspective on the current Zimbabwe destination brand, a wonder should be astonishing and attract people, but this kind of personality is not clear enough to justify the use of ‘A World of Wonders’ as a tourism brand statement in Zimbabwe. Brand personality is evolving as an influential component in product brand management, despite the scant attention given to destination brand personality (Kim & Lehto, 2013, p. 117; Nyagadza et al., 2020b). The concept of brand personality is also vital in developing one’s characteristics of a destination in line with various images existing in the minds of tourists (Kiliç & Adem, 2012, p. 96). The personality of a destination helps more in differentiating, such that tourists will always be able to identify a personality that suits their own (Kim & Lehto, 2013, p. 119). Both pre-visit and post-visit to a destination depend on the extent to which a given tourist’s personality matches the nature of a destination (Bosnjak, 2010, p. 322). Zimbabwe, as a destination brand, might be failing because its personality does not match the expectations of the targeted markets. According to Kim and Lehto (2013, p. 119), the Brand Personality Scale developed by Aaker in 1997 comprises of five dimensions, which are sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and ruggedness. There is a need to understand the personality that is perceived by tourists to be representing Zimbabwe’s destination brand, whether it is sincerity, excitement or ruggedness so as to craft a corrective strategy that matches the expectations of potential tourists.

Tourism festival, event and brand implementation

The implementation of a brand refers to the launching use of a brand in its target markets. This involves the launching of a brand to assess its performance in the market. Destination marketing organisations are responsible for implementing a destination brand (Morrison, 2012). It is important to note that brand implementation also involves coordination and participation of all relevant stakeholders (Perić et al., 2014, p.275). Also, successful implementation of a destination brand relates to market acceptance. There is a need to consider all aspects that make a tourism destination and involve all the players in the implementation. This includes the travel personnel, hotel employees, communities, government officials and representatives of all tourism sectors in the destination. There is a need for festival and event tourism destination marketers to keep track of the market performance of their tourism destination brand (Da Costa Carvalho, 2015, p. 24).

A tourism destination’s performance should be benchmarked in order to determine its intended targets. This will create a position to refer to when measuring and monitoring performance. Continuous surveys are needed in order to understand visitor satisfaction and return for upgrades if there is a market gap (Aziz et al., 2012, p. 212). However, some festival and event tourism destination brands even fail in their implementation. It is not easy to understand the stage at which a brand has failed, but it is tested at the implementation stage. For the Zimbabwe tourism destination brand, there is little research regarding its implementation. Brand implementation involves setting up a platform where the brand is launched in its target markets. The current Zimbabwe tourism brand, ‘A World of Wonders’, was launched in Madrid in 2011 (Chibaya, 2013, p.87), though the success of its implementation is yet to be tested. There is a need for effective publicity of a tourism brand when it is implemented, and this can be achieved using various media.

Tourism festival, event and brand communication

Brand communication involves making the brand known to the potential customers. A brand on its own should be able to communicate with its targeted markets through user-generated mechanisms (Smith et al., 2012), expressing the offerings it represents. Communication is vital, as it helps in informing and raising awareness of the brand. However, it is crucial to understand that some brands fail because they lack an effective communication channel to reach their targeted markets. Brand communication can be enhanced through symbols, colors, a brand name, and other factors. Therefore, the meaning and perception of a brand can be improved through brand communication (Bruhn et al., 2012). Media plays an essential role in improving brand communication in a tourism destination. There are various types of media mixes in every tourism destination. It is difficult to know a specific media that effectively communicates a brand to its target markets. There is a need to frame a message effectively (Metila, 2013) about the meaning of a brand to improve brand communication to its intended audience. Brand attitude plays a vital role in communicating a brand to the potential tourists. If the potential market has a negative attitude regarding the tourism destination and its brand, it will not be challenging to communicate the brand effectively. This requires destination marketers to be persuasive in of formulating a brand communication strategy. Therefore, destination and brand image play an important role in brand communication.

A destination brand perceived to have a negative image by its potential tourists will face a challenge in its brand communication. Effective brand communication is achieved through framing a message that considers self-construal, product knowledge and consumer involvement. Self-construal involves defining one’s attributes without external judgment. A festival and event destination brand communication ought to be able to consider its attributes to convey itself (Pike & Page, 2014, p. 28) optimally. Consumer involvement helps to evaluate and define the type of the customer that a tourism destination brand is supposed to serve, which includes understanding their lifestyle, feelings, favourite products and attitude. This helps in framing a brand communication message that is effective and considers all the needs of the targeted consumers. Brand communication is also improved through product knowledge. The customer ought to know about the products represented by a brand, and the destination marketers should be able to understand their product such that they construct a compelling brand message that explains the functions, benefits and achievement of their offerings.

Tourism festival, event and brand tracking

At this stage, it is essential to assess whether the destination brand is unique, such that it can be differentiated from other brands that exist on the market. Destination marketers should go into the market and sample some customers whom they investigate for their opinions and views about the brand (Ritson, 2011, p.17). The brand should be different in its general and emotional appeal. It should be able to fight competition existing on the market (Pike & Page, 2014, p. 34). A tourism destination brand ought to have features that are distinctive from those of its competitors. Also, at this stage, destination marketers should be able to know how people perceive the brand on its own, regarding its ‘personality’ (Usakli & Baloglu, 2011) and about others existing in the market. This will also help in measuring the level of commitment that people have to the destination and its brand. The emotional appeal of a destination brand (Pike & Page, 2014, p. 25) ought to be measured, as it is more important than any other brand issue.

Quantitative research can be done by presenting a set of questions that help in benchmarking and measuring the level of the emotional appeal of a brand. However, the use of qualitative research will work primarily in understanding the feeling that people have towards the destination brand. Brand tracking should be done regularly to understand any significant changes in people’s perceptions. This is an essential procedure in understanding how the brand is performing in its target markets, considering both those who have visited the destination before and potential visitors. According to this process, destination marketers will be warned of any decline in the attractiveness of a destination brand to refresh the brand through a rebranding process. There is a dearth of research regarding brand tracking from the point of view of a Zimbabwean festival and event tourism destination. In brand tracking, show various reflections show and influence a decline in the attractiveness of a destination brand, including political upheavals, negative news publicity, natural disasters, and other issues. These can have an impact by causing a negative awareness of the tourism destination brand on the global market.

Critical success factors of a tourism festival, event and destination brand

There is a need to understand the main target markets of the tourism destination and its brand (Schaar, 2013,p.5). This helps create and customise a tourism destination brand according to the needs and wants of the potential tourists. As already noted, in the target markets, destination marketers can understand the behaviour of potential tourists, which is vital in constructing a destination personality that matches with the behaviour of the tourists (Usakli’s, 2011). Also, understanding the target market for the destination brand is essential in knowing the types of competitors who are serving the same market (Schaar, 2013,p.6). It helps in determining the level of market share that the destination brand is likely to achieve. In order to win the competition, a tourism destination brand ought to be unique in its presentation, as compared to other existing brands, since tourists view destination brands differently (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011). The culture in one target market differs from that of another market (Schaar, 2013,p.2), and so, when the destination marketers know the culture dominating the market, they will be able to produce a brand that conforms to the culture. Zimbabwe tourism as a destination brand has moved from its traditional target markets in the West to those in the East, and there are few studies as to the effect of changing targeted markets on the Zimbabwe festival and event tourism destination brand performance.

Qualitative customer research is also needed for the success of a tourism destination brand. This helps in establishing a market gap with regard to what the existing marketing is currently providing and what the potential tourists are expecting. The ability to understand the emotional experience of tourists (García et al., 2012) and what they are looking for, which may not be covered in the current market, helps in establishing a unique destination brand on the global market. Therefore, market research helps in understanding the likes and dislikes of tourists. It also helps establish what motivates a tourist to visit or consume destination offerings and the brand, as there is a correlation between expectations of a tourist and travel motivation (Lee et al., 2011). Leadership and support by the most senior management in a festival and event tourism destination are essential for the success of a destination brand (Morgan et al., 2011, p. 3). The Chief Executive Officer of a Destination Marketing Organisation, government ministers, and other Cabinet representatives should be involved in sharing a common vision of a destination brand (Volgger & Pechlaner, 2014). This is because leadership does not only help influence others, but it helps in creating champions and advocates for the destination brand. The leaders are the most followed point of reference, such that when there are well-informed about the existing tourism brand, they can transmit their knowledge to their subordinates expeditiously. There is a need to constantly communicate the brand to the internals of a festival and event tourism destination. These include the employees of a Destination Marketing Organisation, main stakeholders and communities at large (Pike & Page, 2014, p. 4). Constant internal communication helps in promoting buy-in at every level of the brand life cycle. This is through keeping the internals updated on developments and other improvements regarding tourism as a destination brand. It promotes a sense of ownership of the brand, such that these internals will always be willing to serve as tourism destination brand ambassadors. Internal communicate, on will, therefore, also help share the vision, objectives and values of a destination brand. This also helps have a shared drive and understanding of the logos, symbols, colours and representing statements of the destination brand which will be passed down to the potential customers through word of mouth and other necessary channels (Yavuz et al., 2016, p. 64).

Lastly, there is a need to have a long-term internal marketing commitment that is long-term for a destination brand (Del Chiappa & Bregoli, 2012). This is essential in building destination brand equity. Branding should be at the centre of marketing strategies carried out by a Destination Marketing Organisation (Pike & Page, 2014, p. 24). To improve brand equity, there ought to be a contribution of all the main parties in a tourism destination, which are the marketers, stakeholders and residents. These parties will then develop a lasting attachment with the brand, from a behavioural and attitudinal perspective.

Zimbabwe tourism festival, event and destination brand equity

Brand equity refers to brand worthiness, measured by a combination of variables, namely brand loyalty, name awareness, perceived quality, and potency of brand association, together with other critical assets such as trademarks, patents, distribution channels and advertising (Kotler & Keller, 2012). The definition shows that brand equity is an amalgamation of brand awareness creation, image building and loyalty (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011, p. 473). Festival and event destination managers should evaluate their brand equity elements against those of their competitors in order to strengthen their competitiveness in the market (Im et al., 2012, p. 386). Several reports and studies have been done on Zimbabwe’s destination brand, without directly analysing the most dominant variable(s) that can lead to high destination brand equity. Pike et al. (2010, p. 1) have noted that ‘even with attempts to measure Consumer- Based Brand Equity (CBBE) of destination brands, there remains a lack of theory to evaluate its applicability in the tourism context thus there is no concrete agreement on the effective measurement of destination brands.

Tourism festival, event and destination brand awareness

The stage forms a foundation on which brand equity is constructed around a destination. Awareness is the first important step in creating brand equity in any organisation (Im et al., 2012, p. 389). Creation of awareness is essential because a place must be known by the potential tourists before regarding it as a destination to visit (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011, p. 473). Marketers ought to improve visibility of symbols or visual imagery attached to a destination brand name (Im et al., 2012, p. 390). The goal is to improve positive awareness of the festival and event destination brand at any time. Gartner & Ruzzier have noted that the researchers have explored awareness in the levels of dominant, top of mind, familiarity and knowledge such that even if dominant awareness occurs, it does not always translate into positive brand equity as demonstrated by some of the world best-known places like Afghanistan and Iraq, which are highly known but not considered as safe places of visit (2011, p. 473). Zimbabwe festival and event destination brand awareness is subject to negative issues, especially those that were brewed from socio-economic and political mayhem, which directly marred the performance of ‘Africa’s Paradise’ tourism brand and likely to continue in downplaying the current ‘A World of Wonders’ brand. Gartner & Ruzzier have argued, ‘the idea is to understand that focal point of extensive coverage has led to social conflict which does not translate into increased travel inflows meaning that some dominant awareness of a place is of negative value to building brand equity’ (2011, p. 473). Therefore, it does not follow that every awareness results in the profitability of a destination and its brand ascendancInsteadher, it depends on the type of construct informing the awareness, whether positive or negative.

Tourism festival and event destination brand image

Branding has become a vital tool that helps a destination compete for visitors more effectively through enhancing its overall image (Yusof et al., 2014, p. 1). The meaning of a brand is built on the image it portrays to the world. Brand image is directed at the perception that resides in customer’s memory regarding the existing brand (Im et al., 2012; Pike et al., 2010). A festival and event destination brand that possesses excellent image provides memorable thoughts, such that tourists favour it anytime when they need a holiday. There is no consensus on the mechanism(s) that ultimately spread negative or positive images of destination brands or even highlight the most probable type of media affecting destination brand image. Image in a destination is built from various aspects, both controllable and uncontrollable, by destination marketers. It ranges from social to physical, economic and political attributes. Zimbabwe’s destination brand image was downplayed, mainly by political upheavals, which reduced the desire to visit and associate with the destination and its offerings (Chibaya, 2013; Ndlovu & Heath, 2013; Nyagadza et al., 2020). When tourists receive negative news about a destination, this will remain in their memories and eventually reduce visits (Im et al., 2012, p. The image of a destination remains in the tourist’s mind for some time (Myagmarsuren & Chen, 2011, p. 83). Images are a practical staple through which to counteract negative attributes that may be acquired through media (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011, p. 474). The question here is how brand image counteracts negative attributes from various media. A destination brand represents an effective tool and potential node with which several image associations can be linked (Pike et al., 2010). There is little knowledge regarding the effect of destination branding on good image creation. Image capital is crucial when constructing a positive association with tourists to a particular brand. In return, it is the same image that leads to the uniqueness of a destination (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011, p. 474). Destination brands which are well well-known worldwide have gained their popularity based on the positive image they carry. Therefore, destination image has attracted attention in destination branding over the years (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011; Im et al., 2012). The value from visiting a destination can be created in the mind of consumers when they appreciate and understand communicated brand images,. Likewisetourism marketing boards develop more concern in matching the gap between projected and perceived brand images (Kim & Lehto, 2013, p. 118). The main benefit of brand image building is supported by the fact that images carry attributes that one expects a destination to poss. Thus images help create awarenes and reduce risks to the customer, which are associated with visiting a place one knows very little about (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011, p. 474). Management of imagery building mechanisms helps tourists appreciate the state of a destination and will patronise or stop visiting when they have actual knowledge and information, rather than basing their views on unconfirmed perceptions.

Perceived tourism festival, event and destination brand quality

Brand quality is the perception given to a brand regarding its ability to add value. It is highly subjective (Nyagadza et al., 2020a; Pike et al., 2010). There is a problem when trying to define and measure the quality of a destination brand. Since quality is highly subjective and is related to emotions that are not tangible. There is a need for physical experience and interaction with the offerings of a destination before a tourist regards a destination brand to be of high quality. Im et al. (2012, p. 390) have postulated that quality is related to a consumer’s judgment of a product’s overall superiority. One’s judgment differs from that of the other party, such that a consensus on the quality of a destination brand would be hard to reach. In addition, the multidimensional nature and variety of stakeholders’ involvement make it difficult to relentlessly provide quality in a destination, where likewise, quality becomes a prerequisite for brand equity (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011, p. 474). There is little disclosure regarding how quality of a festival and event destination brand can be assessed before it is approved for consumption. Zimbabwe, as a destination brand, has received a negative perception of its socio-economic and political affairs, which might be the main reason for its perceived poor brand quality. Perceived quality becomes a construct regularly used by tourism researchers in brand equity development (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011). To this extent, even with its subjectivity, quality can be made operational through a variety of scales, just like any other brand equity dimension (Konecnik Ruzzier, 2010).

Tourism festival, event and destination brand loyalty

This is the highest level in destination brand equity building, whereby tourists develop an attachment and lasting relationship with a destination brand. According to Im et al. (2012, p. 391), brand loyalty comprises both the attitudinal and behavioural, with the former concentrating on the consumer’s repurchase intentions and the latter emphasising the repeat purchasing of a brand. In a destination, loyalty is seen from repeat visits of tourists, which is triggered by past travel experiences and attachment to tradition (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011, p. 474; Kabonga et al., 2021). Tourists’ destination brand loyalty, therefore, can be assessed according to two main perspectives, namely attitudinal and behavioural loyalty. Behavioural loyalty refers to how consumers behave in their consumption (Mechinda et al., 2010). This is behaviour in purchasing and consumption (Kiliç & Adem, 2012, p. 97). Attitudinal loyalty is more of an emotional attachment that is placed on goods or services (McKercher et al., 2012). It is the composite loyalty (both behavioural and attitudinal) that improves the consumption of tourism products and services, whereby revisiting and recommending others to visit a destination constitutes the complete act (Kiliç & Adem, 2012, p. 97). When there is frequent repeat visitation and positive word-of-mouth recommendations, brand loyalty is established (Pike, 2010, p. 129). The situation in Zimbabwe as a destination sh is negative tourist loyalty to the destination brand. Tourists’ inflows have reduced over the years, which constitutes a sign that that both behavioural and attitudinal loyalty in consumption has become negative.

Tourism festival, event and destination brand association

Brand association refers to a choice to purchase in the present triggered by the memory and experience from previous purchases or consumption of the same product or service (Im et al., 2012, p. 390). A festival and event destination brand associated with excitement and relaxation becomes the first choice amongst others when one wants to make a holiday or any touristic visit (Nyagadza et al., 2020a, 2020b). The brand association can refer to anything that can trigger memory and make an individual develop an interest to revisit a destination (Pike, 2010, p. 129). Zimbabwe, as a festival and event destination brand, has lost its appeal in the mind and memory of tourists over the years significantly in traditional tourism markets such as the United Kingdom and Germany. However, the creation of a positive association is a long-held process, as it requires the comprehensive integration of all activities that lead to improved awareness, positive images, high quality and improved tourist loyalty. As propounded by Qu et al. (2011), brand association variables are complete after considering image building and improved quality. This refers to when tourists are aware of the existence of a brand and hold a positive perception of its image and quality such that they become loyal and improve their association with the destination brand. Zimbabwe as a destination generally triggers fear and confusion for tourists since news and other transmitters of information regard the destination as hostile and unsafe for visitors.

Analysis of tourism festival and event destination branding models and discussions

Destination branding is still a developing concept since its inception, with various authors sharing different views of how it ought to be theorised. The divergence in perspectives has resulted in the establishment of multiple brand equity models. Festival and event destination brand equity have therefore evolved over the years, constructed from both a customer and supplier point of view. Some of the models that have been developed in destination branding are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Festival and event tourism destination branding models and discussions.

Author	Model	Factors	Similarities
Konecnik (2005)	Consumer-based brand equity for tourism destination (CBBED)	Brand awareness, brand image, perceived brand quality and brand loyalty	This study also focused on destination brand awareness, brand image, perceived brand quality and brand loyalty as performance measures.
Konecnik and Gartner (2007)	Tourism destination brand awareness	Leaders of a tourism destination, tourism destination name tourism destination characteristics, tourism destination image, tourism destination characteristics, tourism destination image, logos, slogans and symbols of a tourist destination.	This study revealed that a tourism destination brand could be identified as a name, and its brand awareness is affected by tourism destination image. Tourism destination characteristics of brand identity and brand positioning help in making a destination known, where slogans, logos and symbols define a destination brand.
	Tourism destination brand image	Political stability	This study revealed that a destination brand image could be downplayed by political instability.
	Perceived brand quality	Low pricing, Good infrastructure	In this study, pricing and infrastructural development are found to high influence perceived destination brand quality.
	Destination brand loyalty	Positive recommendations from others, increased number of visitors	This study showed that positive recommendations can improve destination brand loyalty.
Research on festival & event destination branding
Author	Tourism Destination	Branding Factors	Similarities
Pike et al. (2010).	Australia	Brand associations Brand loyalty Brand resonance Brand salience	This study investigated the effect of print on brand equity variables. There are similarities with the highlighted branding factors, as this study tested print media about brand awareness, brand image, perceived brand quality, brand loyalty and brand association.
Ruzzier & Gartner (2007)	Slovenia and Austria	Destination awareness Destination image Destination loyalty Destination quality	This study did not only analyse highlighted brand equity variables but extended to test their relationship with various types of print media, including newspapers, journals, magazines and brochures.
Kladou and Kehagias (2014)	Roma (Italia)	Brand assets Brand associations Brand awareness Brand loyalty Brand quality	This study focused on destination brand association, brand loyalty, and perceived brand quality about print media publicity.
Gartner and Ruzzier (2011)	Slovenia	Brand awareness Brand image Brand loyalty Brand quality	The study investigated all these variables with a different brand association.
Chen and Myagmarsuren (2010)	Mongolia	Brand awareness Brand image Brand quality	This study also investigated all of the highlighted brand equity variables with the addition of brand loyalty and brand association.
Branding Models
Author	Branding Model	Model	Similarities
Dinnie (2008)	Nation Branding	Application of branding in fast-developing countries, to attract tourists and stimulate inward investments and exports	This study focused on Zimbabwe as a tourism destination, which is in a developing country, where the reduction in the number of tourists and branding was investigated as a tool to attract and increase tourists to stimulate inward investment.
Anholt (2007)	Hexagon of Competitive Identity	The six points of the hexagon represent the following: tourism, brands, policy, investment, culture and people	This study mainly focused on brands and tourism as the critical variables for competitive identity though other elements like such as culture and people were considered in this study.
Morgan et al. (2011)	Destination Branding, Creating Unique Destination Proposition	Competitive identity, risk of promoting a destination, not in the memory of tourists	This model helped in improving the identity of a tourism destination using brands and their propositions. For this study, the brand identity was also considered as a critical factor that is needed to improve the performance of a destination brand.
Pike (2005)	Tourism Destination Branding Complexity	The balance between community agreement and brand theory, top-down approach to destination brand implementation, stakeholder involvement	The model informs the complex nature of a tourism destination which on impacts its brand. It considered the importance of stakeholders in destination branding. This study also considered the importance of stakeholders in destination branding, such that print media became another critical stakeholder in destination branding.

As presented in Table 3.1 above, Konecnik (2005) produced a Consumer Based Brand Equity model that constitutes a composite of brand awareness, brand image, perceived brand quality and brand loyalty. These are the standpoints of this study except that this study also looked at destination brand association as another brand equity variable for investigation. Konecnik and Gartner (2007) modelled tourism destination brand awareness as a construct of tourism destination leaders, destination names, destination images, logos and symbols. They also announced tourism destination brand image as an effect of political stability and perceived brand quality, influenced by low pricing and good infrastructure. Lastly, the authors in their model informed us that brand loyalty results from positive recommendations from others. These contributions by Konecnik and Gartner (2007) align with the thrust of this study, which is to measure the Zimbabwe tourism destination brand equity using brand awareness, brand image, perceived brand quality, and brand loyalty. It is also important to note that there are similarities with this study, since it also looked at the effect of political stability and perceived image on tourists’ arrivals. As depicted in Table 3.1 above, other authors have also researched destination branding for various countries. The focus of this study was on tourism destinations in Zimbabwe, whilst other authors included Pike et al. (2010) from Australia; Konecnik and Gartner (2007) from Slovenia and Austria; Kladou and Kehagias (2014) from Italy; Gartner and Ruzzier (2011) from Slovenia; and Chen and Myagmarsuren (2010) from Mongolia. A common aspect of these studies which is similar to this study is the use of brand equity variables which are brand awareness, brand image, perceived brand quality, brand loyalty, and brand association in measuring the destination brand performance (Nyagadza, 2021; Nyagadza et al., 2019, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d). Lastly, various branding-specific models have been established, as presented in Table 3.1 above, which also relate to this study. They include the following: Nation Branding by Dinnie (2008); Hexagon of Competitive Identity by Anholt (2007); Destination Branding, Creating Unique Destination Proposition by Morgan et al. (2010); and Branding Complexity by Pike (2005). An expected contribution of these models is that they looked into branding with regard to tourism, which is also the main aim of this study.

Conclusion

The main contribution of this study was to improve Zimbabwe’s tourism brand image and equity. This helped in understanding how destination branding developed through various stages. Since the main thrust was on brand performance measured by brand equity variables, the chapter also reviewed the literature for each selected brand equity variable, namely brand awareness, brand image, perceived brand quality, brand loyalty, and brand association. The aim was to understand how each variable affects overall brand equity. There is a limited contribution from various global researchers on the best media to use to improve destination image. According to perspectives, imagery is increasingly important in promoting tourism destinations through expressions and messages (Molina et al., 2010). Lastly, the chapter analysed the contributions of various authors in the area of tourism destination branding. This helped to determine similarities of this study to other studies that have been made in the same area. It also helped to expose the gaps that have been discovered and filled by this study. An effective brand can help in improving the image of a tourism festival and event destination, especially when it is communicated using various media. The power of a brand is measured by the level of its brand equity and ability to be differentiated from other existing brands (Kotler & Armstrong, 2011, p. 243; Nyagadza & Nyauswa, 2019). There is negative Zimbabwe destination brand equity resulting from the tarnished image of the destination by various international media (Chibaya, 2013; Ndlovu & Heath, 2013). Also, when using brand loyalty as a measurement, there is low brand equity since the number of tourist arrivals has followed a downward trend over the years. It is, therefore tricky to have lasting associates for Zimbabwe’s destination and its brand if corrective measures are not taken. Theoretically, according to Gartner and Ruzzier (2011, p. 472) ‘brand equity can be viewed as the process of not only creating ownership for a particular brand but also the value of that ownership of which from a generic product perspective this value is reflected by additional monetary returns that comes from using a brand name’. Pike (2010, p.125) noted that brand equity is commonly used as a term that represents brand performance, which is measured in financial value on the corporate balance sheet. This analysis can be related to Zimbabwe as a destination brand, as the revenues from the tourism industry have been staggeringly negative. However, the use of tourism revenues to measure destination brand performance is debatable since high volumes usually do not reflect high revenues, and low volumes also do not mean low revenues. Traditionally, when Zimbabwe as a destination brand was at peak performance, the destination had low volumes of Western tourists, with high value. Conversely, the periods associated with poor destination brand performance in Zimbabwe have seen a high volume of tourists, with low values, especially after engaging the Look East Policy, moving from a ‘Low Volume-High Value’ to a ‘High Volume-Low Value’ type of tourism. Therefore, destination brand performance might be measured using tourists’ inflows rather than relying on revenues. The reason for this is that brand followership highly reflects the destination’s attractiveness in the market. Also, there is the power of word of mouth when those who have had a personal experience of a tourism destination become a trusted source of information for potential tourists. It is also important to note that destination branding is not the only prerequisite to changing the image of a tourism destination. Even though the brand of a tourism destination is the leading face and voice in communicating to the destination’s external environment, other factors, such as the source of information, help to influence the image of a tourism destination brand.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Farai Chigora

Dr. Farai Chigora holds a Doctorate in Business Administration from University of KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), a Senior Lecturer in Business Science in the College of Business, Peace Leadership and Governance, Africa University in Zimbabwe. He is a branding specialist with interest in destination branding, strategic marketing, business research and related business areas which he has authored in various refereed international journals.

Joram Ndlovu

Prof. Joram Ndlovu has a PhD in Tourism Management from University of Pretoria (South Africa). An Associate Professor at the University of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa and Cluster Leader in Cultural & Heritage Tourism, School of Social Sciences. His interest is in Tourism and Gastronomy, Tourism Enterprises and Sustainable Development, Destination branding & tourism marketing, Cultural heritage and Community Based Tourism and related business areas which he has authored in various refereed international journals.

Brighton Nyagadza

Dr. Brighton Nyagadza (CIM, Ph.D) is a full time lecturer and A/Chairperson of the Department of Marketing (digital marketing) at Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (MUAST), Zimbabwe, a Research Associate of the Institute for the Future of Knowledge (IFK), University of Johannesburg (UJ), South Africa, a full member of the Marketers Association of Zimbabwe (MAZ), an Associate of The Chartered Institute of Marketing (ACIM), United Kingdom and a Power Member of the Digital Marketing Institute (DMI), Dublin, Ireland. He has published several book chapters in Routledge books, published by Taylor & Francis, New York (USA), Emerald Insight, United Kingdom (UK), Lexington books published by Rowan & Littlefield, Maryland (USA) and in reputable international journals such as Journal of Digital Media & Policy (Intellect), Sustainable Technology & Entrepreneurship (Elsevier), Journal of Fashion Marketing & Management (Emerald), European Journal of Management Studies (Emerald), Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies (Emerald), Journal of Environmental Media (Intellect), European Journal of Innovation Management (Emerald), Africa Review (Brill), Tourism Critiques: Practice & Theory (Emerald), SN Social Sciences (Springer), Journal of Asian & African Studies (SAGE), PSU Research Review (Emerald), Youth & Society (SAGE), Quality Assurance in Education (Emerald), The Marketing Review (Westburn), among others. Brighton sits on various corporate and academic boards including the Mashonaland East Province Zimbabwe National Development Strategy (NDS) Committee (2021-2025) – ICT & Human Capital Development cohort.