Social capital and economic mobility in tourism: a systematic literature review

Abstract

The existing literature mapping the state of social capital and economic mobility in tourism does not provide in-depth information concerning the post-pandemic challenge that caused a mismatch between them. Only a limited number of articles have attempted to systematically review available literature in this field, which has led to the current study, which aims to develop a systematic review related to social capital and economic mobility in tourism. The review encompassed 40 key journal articles from three reputable databases—Scopus, Science Direct, and Google Scholar—from 2006 to 2023. The 18 years were meticulously considered, and the review protocol adhered to the PRISMA Statement (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). Thematic analysis was applied to categorise the literature, resulting in four main themes: Community Development, Community Adaptation, Community Participation, and Quality of Life. This review presented several recommendations for social capital, stakeholders, and communities to consider in future.

Keywords:

• Social capital
• economic mobility
• tourism
• Quality of life
• systematic literature review

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Pier Luigi Sacco, Humanities, IULM University, Milano, Italy

SUBJECTS:

• Tourism Behaviour
• Urban Studies

1. Introduction

The hospitality industry has developed into a global initiative where consumers and producers are spread worldwide (Lahap et al., 2016). The industry is one of the significant contributors to many countries (Mohajerani & Miremadi, 2012), and it has proven that tourism is part of job development for many millions, especially in economies. The total contribution of travel and tourism to the global GDP was reported to be over 20%, making it the third-largest export sector of the global economy (United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO], 2019). In Malaysia, the tourism revenue rose to MYR 41.69 million in 2019, making up 6.8% of the total economy (Karim et al., 2020). Unfortunately, COVID-19 has affected the hospitality industry by impacting all continents’ economies, livelihoods, public services, and opportunities (UNWTO, 2022).

The hospitality industry in Malaysia was among the worst-hit sectors during the pandemic. Some hotels, travel agencies, tour operators, tour guides, and transportation companies continue to face the risk of closure. Some companies in urban, peri-urban or rural destinations have closed down (International Labour Organization [ILO], 2020). Approximately 80% of the hospitality industry lost business due to Covid-19 (Che Ahmat et al., 2022; Karim et al., 2020). The number of unemployed rose from 1.7 million in January 2020 to 7.35 million in August 2020 (Department of Statistics Malaysia Official Portal [DOSM], 2020). Forty-one thousand hotel industry employees have been laid off. Some hotels were even closed down due to employees’ increased anxiety as they were concerned about their future employment (MAH, 2020).

This epic scenario led to 60% of Malaysian employees struggling as they were trying to survive after being unemployed, along with the high cost of living in urban (Hirschmann, 2020; The Edge Markets, 2020). Somehow, it forced the employees to return to their hometowns, especially those from rural and peri-urban areas, as they could no longer afford the relatively high cost of living in the cities (Paulo, 2020). Despite the relevance and growing attention to employees’ mobility due to retrenchment, researchers and tourism providers still find social capital and economic mobility challenging to understand, integrate, and deploy in tourism markets. We tackle the research gaps mentioned above with a comprehensive and detailed systematic literature review (SLR) that aims to guide decision-makers and researchers in understanding why the mismatch between social capital and economic mobility occurs in tourism.

Social capital is a concept that has gained increasing recognition and importance in tourism. It refers to the networks, relationships, and social interactions among individuals, groups, and communities. In tourism, social capital plays a crucial role in shaping the relationships between tourists, residents, businesses, and other stakeholders (Al-Omoush et al., 2022). It enhances the overall tourism experience and contributes to the well-being of residents and visitors alike (Moscardo, 2012). Destination management organisations, businesses, and governments should recognise and nurture social capital as an invaluable asset in their tourism strategies (Khosravi et al., 2015). Social capital, which encompasses the networks, relationships, and social interactions among individuals or groups, can influence one’s ability to improve their economic status and achieve upward mobility in the tourism sector.

A systematic review examines a formulated question using systematic and explicit methods to identify, select and critically appraise relevant research studies and analyse the data (Xiao & Watson, 2019). This study aims to systematically analyse the literature on social capital and economic mobility in tourism. Although related articles are abundant, there has yet to be any systematic literature review on specific keywords such as social capital and economic mobility. The mismatch between social capital and economic mobility in tourism is systematically reviewed via an integrative approach that includes reference to prior SLR guidelines, gaps identification and results synthesis (Sauer & Seuring, 2023). This study diverges from the traditional stand-alone literature review (Lim et al., 2022) and adopts a systematic review methodology known for its time and effort efficiency. The systematic review comprises three stages: (1) Identification of Potential Articles—sourcing from specified databases for a comprehensive selection, (2) Screening Process—meticulous evaluation considering language, design type, and publication year to filter articles, and (3) Eligibility Check—a thorough assessment based on criteria like title, abstract, and methodology to include relevant articles. This approach ensures a focused and streamlined synthesis of the available literature.

2. Materials and methods

In this study, the process carried out in this review allows the identification of gaps and determines the direction for future research related to social capital and economic mobility (Shaffril et al., 2021; Wahid & Rusli, 2019). The comprehensive review of the selected literature in this field was sourced from three databases, resulting in 40 articles on social capital and economic mobility in tourism. Figure 1 illustrates the A until Z process of SLR in an organised manner from the hospitality and tourism literature.

Figure 1. The flow diagram of the study (Moher et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2017).

2.1 Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA)

Systematic reviews offer several advantages over narrative reviews in extracting the relevant literature more precisely (Mays et al., 2005). The approach also allows for mapping the landscape and boundary of knowledge by counting and charting what is known versus what is yet to be known (Pickering et al., 2015). This study uses an adaptation of the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) flow chart by Yang et al. (2017) and Moher et al. (2010). PRISMA guides researchers in formulating research questions that permit systematic research, identify inclusion and exclusion criteria, and examine the extensive scientific literature database over a defined period (Page et al., 2021). Figure 1 presents the PRISMA flowchart.

2.2. Systematic searching strategies

These search strategies comprise three subcategories: identification, screening, and eligibility.

2.2.1. Identification

This first stage of keyword identification is critical to increasing the possibility of compiling more related articles for the review (Shaffril et al., 2021). More general keywords will produce more reports but might include too many irrelevant papers. On the other hand, too specific keywords will result in more relevant articles, but there is the risk of losing records. This study used a combination of both general keywords followed by particular keywords. The main keywords used are social capital, economic mobility, and synonyms using an online thesaurus (Shaffril et al., 2021). The focus should be on the comprehensiveness and accuracy of the keywords used in the search process (Wanden-Berghe & Sanz-Valero, 2012). The keywords were combined using search functions such as Boolean operators, phrase searching, truncation, wild cards, and field code functions, as seen in Table 1.

Table 1. The search string used for the systematic review process.

Database	Keywords used
Scopus	TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“(“social capital”) OR (“capacity building”) OR (“community resilience”) AND (“economic mobility”) OR (“mobility”))
Science Direct	Social Capital and Economic Mobility in Tourism
Google Scholar	Social Capital and Economic Mobility in Tourism

Xiao and Watson (2019) revealed that no database is comprehensive, and a systematic search must be made from several databases. Thus, three selected online databases were used in the search process: Scopus, Science Direct, and Google Scholar, performed in January 2023. Table 1 presents a search string of related articles in Scopus, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. The exact keywords were used in Google Scholar, and whenever appropriate, searching techniques such as Boolean operators, phrase searching, and field code functions were performed. On top of that, manual searching by handpicking relevant articles was executed. In this process, 60 potential articles were identified, and four duplicated articles were excluded later, meaning that 56 articles were included in the study.

2.2.2. Screening

The related articles were executed through the screening process of 56 articles via the identification process. This study chose a period for a selected related article between 2006 and 2023 (18 years). Kraus et al. (2020) stated that for a mature study where a good number of articles can be tracked, the timeline publication might be shorter than a less developed study. The criteria for the selected papers in the screening process consisted of language, design type, and publication year (see Table 2). The related article should be in English to be more understandable and answer the research questions. It is recommended that only selecting publications in languages that are understandable because setting articles from foreign languages can create confusion, add more costs for the review, and be time-consuming. Thus, one paper was excluded due to its publication in Spanish rather than English.

Table 2. The inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Criterion	Eligibility	Exclusion
Language	Journal (research articles), book series, book chapter in a book)	Journal (systematic literature review and conference proceeding)
Type of design	English	Non-English
Timeline	Between 2006 and 2023	2005 and earlier

2.2.3 Eligibility

The third phase of this process is related to eligibility. Mohamed Shaffril (2021) highlighted this phase as crucial, where the manual screening process will occur. In this process, the articles were again checked for suitability for the review based on title, abstract, and, if needed, the methodology section. The articles were further reduced to 40, as presented in Figure 1. A total of 15 articles were excluded due to the article needing to be more irretrievable from the database or the content not focusing on social capital and/or economic mobility. The last 40 articles were then ready for an appraisal for Quality (see Figure 1).

2.3. Data extraction and analysis

The remaining 40 related articles were accessed and further analysed. Before analysis, all relevant data were extracted from selected articles in which the studies’ research questions guided the process. The selected articles were sorted into three relevant sections, abstract, result, and discussion, before proceeding to the other sections to look for related information. All extracted data were placed into the table to ease the synthesis process.

Thematic analysis was performed to identify themes related to social capital and economic mobility in tourism. Flemming et al. (2019) confirmed that thematic analysis is the most suitable for synthesising mixed research design, with caution about using framework synthesis. It is used to identify, analyse, organise, describe and report themes recognised within extracted data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The patterns had to be detected based on extracted data in generating themes. The main themes were developed by considering similarities or relations between the extracted data.

3. Research findings

The review identified four main themes, four sub-themes related to social capital and economic mobility in tourism, and four main themes related to articles. The four main themes, as mentioned previously, were Community development (one sub-theme), Community adaptation (one sub-theme), Community participation (one sub-theme), and Quality of life (one sub-theme). Table 4 presents the result of a comprehensive analysis provided by the researcher.

Table 4. Thematic analysis.

THEMATIC ANALYSIS
Author/years	Years	Settings	Main study design	Community development (TA)	Community adaptation (DI)	Community participation (CA)	Quality of life (EO)
1. Fuwa	2006	Philippines	QL				♣
2. McGehee et al.	2010	Virginia	QN		♣
3. Hanlon	2010	United Kingdom	QL				♣
4. Guzman et al.	2011	Cape Verde	QN				♣
5. Stanley et al.	2012	Australia	QL		♣	x
6. Himanshu et al.	2013	India	QL			♣
7. Mura & Tavakoli	2014	Malaysia	QL			♣
8. Wu & Tsai	2016	Taiwan	QN			♣
9. Che mat et al.	2016	Malaysia	QL				♣
10. Sharkey	2016	United States	QL	♣
11. Tavakoli et al.	2017	Malaysia	QL	♣		x
12. Sithole et al.	2018	Zimbabwe	MM	♣√		x
13. Imbaya et al.	2019	Kenya	MM		♣√	x
14. Dartanto et al.	2019	Indonesia	QL				♣√
15. Christensen et al.	2020	Denmark	MM		x		♣√
16. Prawoto et al.	2020	Indonesia	QL			x	♣√
17. Baker et al.	2021	German	QL		♣√		x
18. Knollenberg et al.	2021	United States	QL	♣√		x
19. Masud-All-Kamal et al.	2021	Bangladesh	QL		♣√	x
20. Kristani et al.	2021	Indonesia	QN		♣√	x
21. Park et al.	2021	United Kingdom	QL				♣√
22. Scuttari et al.	2021	Italy	MM				♣√
23. Yang et al.	2021	Bali, Dubai, Hong Kong, London, Makkah, New York, Osaka, Tokyo, and Singapore	QL				♣√
24. Al-Omoush et al.	2022	Jordan	QL				♣√
25. Tavakolinia & Pouya	2022	Tehran	QN		x	♣ √
26. Lei, et al.	2023	Portugese	QL	♣		√
27. Tomay & Tuboly	2023	Hungary	QL	x√		♣
28. Yu, et al.	2023	China	QL		♣	x
29. Rusmawati, et al.	2023	Indonesia	QN	♣		x
30. Hammad & Naggar	2023	Egypt	MM		♣		♣ √
31. Mathey, et al.	2023	NA	QN		√x	♣
32. Cheng, et al.	2023	China	QN	√			♣
33. Thananusak & Suriyankietkaew	2023	Thailand	MM	x	♣
34. Zhang & Yang	2023	Ieceland	QN	♣	x
35. Huo, et al.	2023	China	MM	x√		♣
36. Scheyvens, et al.	2023	Pacific	QL	√		♣	x
37. Ton et al.	2023	Vietnam	QL	♣		x
38. Zengeya et al.	2023	Zimbabwe	QL	♣			√
39. Yuliati, et al	2023	Indonesia	QL	√	♣
40. Bærenholdt & Meged	2023	Asia	QL	♣		♣ √

Note. QN: Quantitative, QL: Qualitative, MM: Mixed Method; ♣, √, x;: Main theme/Sub-theme/related.

3.1. General background of the selected studies

Several studies look into social capital (Park et al., 2021; Sithole et al., 2018; Tavakoli et al., 2017; Tavakolinia & Pouya, 2022; Wu & Tsai, 2016; Yang et al., 2021). Meanwhile, other studies focused on economic mobility (Christensen et al., 2020; Dartanto et al., 2020; Fuwa, 2006; Himanshu et al., 2013; Prawoto et al., 2020; Sharkey, 2016; Stanley et al., 2012). Table 3 summarises the research setting (country) focused on 40 articles with different methodology foci. Overall, the geographical locations covered by social capital and economic mobility in tourism studies were wide-ranging, with literature predominantly focused on Malaysian and Indonesian contexts. Nine quantitative studies, 24 qualitative studies, and seven mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative) studies were selected for the review.

Table 3. List of reviewed studies.

No	Year	Settings	Authors	Method
1.	2006	Philippines	Fuwa	QL
2.	2010	Virginia	McGehee et al.	QN
3.	2010	United Kingdom	Hanlon	QL
4.	2011	Cape Verde	Guzman et al.	QN
5.	2012	Australia	Stanley et al.	QL
6.	2013	India	Himanshu et al.	QL
7.	2014	Malaysia	Mura & Tavakoli	QL
8.	2016	Taiwan	Wu & Tsai	QN
9.	2016	Malaysia	Che mat et al.	QL
10.	2016	United States	Sharkey	QL
11.	2017	Malaysia	Tavakoli et al.	QL
12.	2018	Zimbabwe	Sithole et al.	MM
13.	2019	Kenya	Imbaya et al.	MM
14.	2019	Indonesia	Dartanto et al.	QL
15.	2020	Denmark	Christensen et al.	MM
16.	2020	Indonesia	Prawoto et al.	QL
17.	2021	German	Baker et al.	QL
18.	2021	United States	Knollenberg et al.	QL
19.	2021	Bangladesh	Masud-All-Kamal et al.	QL
20.	2021	Indonesia	Kristani et al.	QN
21.	2021	United Kingdom	Park et al.	QL
22.	2021	Italy	Scuttari et al.	MM
23.	2021	Bali, Dubai, Hong Kong, London, Makkah, New York, Osaka, Tokyo, and Singapore	Yang et al.	QL
24.	2022	Jordan	Al-Omoush et al.	QL
25.	2022	Tehran	Tavakolinia & Pounya	QN
26.	2023	Hungary	Tomay & Tuboly	QL
27.	2023	Portuguese	Lei, et al.	QL
28.	2023	China	Yu, et al.	QL
29.	2023	Indonesia	Rusmawati, et al.	QN
30.	2023	Egypt	Hammad & Naggar	MM
31.	2023	NA	Mathey, et al.	QN
32.	2023	China	Cheng, et al.	QN
33.	2023	Thailand	Thananusak & Suriyankietkaew	MM
34.	2023	Iceland	Zhang & Yang	QN
35.	2023	China	Huo, et al.	MM
36.	2023	Pacific	Scheyvens, et al.	QL
37.	2023	Vietnam	Ton, et al.	QL
38.	2023	Zimbabwe	Zengeya et al.	QL
39.	2023	Indonesia	Yuliati, et al.	QL
40.	2023	Asia	Bærenholdt & Meged	QL

3.2. Social capital and economic mobility in tourism

This segment focuses on the social capital and economic mobility in tourism based on four main themes: Community development, Community adaptation, Community participation and Quality of life (see Table 4).

3.2.1. Community development

Four of the 40 studies focused on community development of social capital and economic mobility in tourism as the first central theme (see Table 4). This systematic review found that four studies focused on tourism assets as a sub-theme of community development (see Table 4).

3.2.1.1. Tourism assets

Tourism has the potential to enrich these capacities when its development incorporates existing community assets (Lei et al., 2023; Wu & Tsai, 2016). The areas of interest concerning tourism and social capital are categorised into three main areas, namely (a) social capital among tourists, (b) social capital among stakeholders and tourism-related businesses, and (c) the role of social capital in tourism development (Tomay & Tuboly, 2023). Tourism development ultimately influences the host community levels and social capital (Lei et al., 2023; McGehee et al., 2010; Tavakolinia & Pouya, 2022). However, tourism development toward communities’ social capital might occur positively and negatively (Rusmawati et al., 2023). The issues in local development cannot be solved if the three concepts of social capital are still separated and linked (tourism, regional developments, and social capital) (Macbeth et al., 2004; Mathey et al., 2023; McGehee et al., 2010).

Bridging and bonding social capital must be implemented to generate different outcomes in community development (Agnitsch et al., 2006; Islam et al., 2020; Ton et al., 2023). The study by Knollenberg et al. (2021) agreed that bridging social capital can play a role in establishing a Community-Based Tourism (CBT) product. For instance, establishing a craft beer trail resulted positively and allowed collaboration between producers and tourism sector entities (lodging providers) (Slocum & Curtis, 2017). Establishing the homestay program also affected social capital involvement levels (Bakar et al., 2014; Ibrahim & Razzaq, 2010). This effort has shown a positive result in community marketing networks (Carlson et al., 2008). If local community members perceive or experience the impact and benefits of tourism positively, they will more likely be more supportive of its development (Adongo et al., 2017; Baral & Rijal, 2022; Huo et al., 2023).

3.2.2. Community adaptation

Six of 40 studies focused on the second central theme of community adaptation to social capital and economic mobility in tourism (see Table 4). This systematic review found that ten studies focused on development initiatives (DI) as a sub-theme of community adaptation. Four studies are slightly related to the sub-theme (see Table 4).

3.2.2.1. Development initiatives

Social capital is considered a community strength in facing a disease, especially during a pandemic (Ganapati, 2013; Kristanti et al., 2021). It can enhance the community by spreading positivity in providing needs (Kristanti et al., 2021). However, there is a limitation in promoting tourism activities amid a pandemic, except for domestic travel, as it can be used as an alternative to drive the economy and improve business performance (Chan, 2021; Yusof, 2020). The CBT program is the one that is adapted in terms of both conservation and development (Yusof, 2020). However, depending on their involvement, there is still a limited understanding of local communities (Ashley & Roe, 2001; Krüger, 2005). The participation of local communities can be excellent cooperation in implementing the adaptation even though it will exceed the costs (Rozemeijer, 2001; Thananusak & Suriyankietkaew, 2023).

CBT also has the potential to bring a positive outcome to increase incomes and jobs, develop skills and institutions, and empower local people (Mathey et al., 2023). Hence, when communities have essential tourism skills and access to resources, they can become active participants in tourism development (Sithole et al., 2018; Tavakolinia & Pouya, 2022). Without knowledge of how to establish CBT, the opportunities to leverage this niche tourism sector’s potential economic development benefits, which include tourism expenditures and attracting new residents, workforce members, and businesses, may be limited (Knollenberg et al., 2021). However, tourism development-driven transformation of local communities may differentially affect the local communities (Lei et al., 2023; Wu & Tsai, 2016). For example, developing a craft beverage industry and subsequent CBT, as described in a study by Knollenberg et al. (2021), contributes to economic development and benefits local communities.

Other than that, communities considered tourism development a livelihood opportunity and perceived job creation and a higher level of economic welfare for the islands as positive effects (Wu & Tsai, 2016). Hence, capacity building that satisfies the different needs of these communities is necessary (Wu, 2013; Wu & Tsai, 2014). Without capacity building and policy protection, it will negatively affect local communities’ livelihoods (Wu & Tsai, 2016). Moreover, the local community’s perceptions of capacity building and willingness to adapt to the changes caused by tourism development must be understood before the product (Thananusak & Suriyankietkaew, 2023).

In the capital-based concept, local social adaptability to change can be built through investing in human-made capital (Rusmawati et al., 2023; Wu & Tsai, 2014). It is a tendency for a tourism developer to invest in community training as a means of contributing to long-term development (Aref et al., 2010; Sithole et al., 2018). Local communities can also unite with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to educate other community members about tourism development projects (Aref et al., 2010; Saito, 2017). This initiative has been implemented as a strategy for tourism development and positively resulted in the study of Sithole et al. (2018).

3.2.3. Community participation

Four of 40 studies focused on community participation in social capital and economic mobility in tourism as the third central theme (see Table 4). This systematic review found nine studies focused on community actors (CA) as a sub-theme of community participation. Eleven studies are slightly related to the sub-theme (see Table 4).

3.2.3.1. Community actors

Trust can become a vital determinant of a resident’s attitude (Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2007). These attitudes can influence social capital’s decision to start a tourism business (European Commission, 2020; Tomay & Tuboly, 2023). Trust can create a strong relationship between communities as they end up with local activities such as religious meetings, participation in homestay management, and community work (Huo et al., 2023; Pramanik et al., 2019). It also helps reduce transaction costs or increase information flow to enhance business survival rates (Conroy & Deller, 2020; Hammad & Naggar, 2023). It has positively resulted in regional tourism development in terms of economic components, such as increasing employment and land values (Macbeth et al., 2004).

However, the actor of social capital has an imbalance of individual character and is at the actor’s disposal (Ejtehadi, 2007). Sceptic and distrust were popular among external actors because of their previous encounters with top-down development, exploitation, and marginalisation. For instance, exploitation of the same economic contributors can decrease the product’s sustainability and may result negatively (Wu & Tsai, 2016). Initiatives need to be taken as it has become a challenge for communities to prolong their source of income (Khakpoor & Piry, 2006). The problems may appear because of the limited capacities, market knowledge in designing products, and limited access to information, skills, and capital (Moscardo, 2008). The cooperation between social capitals may be reduced, and if conflict is generated, associations can be developed to oppose the development (Moscardo, 2012).

The engagement actors (communities) have to participate in tourism to understand the aims of tourism development (Sutawa, 2012; Wu & Tsai, 2016). This situation might be inflexible as they need to learn and adapt to the changes generated by the new regulations (Aref & Ma’rof, 2009; Mason & Cheyne, 2000; Moscardo, 2008). Unsustainable tourism outcomes would result negatively if the local communities were too indecisive (Ebrahimi & Khalifah, 2014; Hussin & Kunjuraman, 2014; Sebele, 2010). Local communities are advised to build relationships with other neighbourhoods, such as stakeholders, to expand economic lines (Knollenberg et al., 2021). The cooperation of the local community is essential for the success and sustainability of any tourism development project (Stylidis et al., 2014; Thananusak & Suriyankietkaew, 2023). Knollenberg et al. (2021) showed that bonding social capital between entrepreneurs and residents is vital to establishing new economic access.

Furthermore, these relationships should be ongoing and influential in improving development processes (Khosravi et al., 2015). There is evidence in tourism contact that positive encounters are possible and can lead to the development of longer-term relationships that can enhance the social capital of the destination community (Mura & Tavakoli, 2014).

3.2.4. Quality of life

Eleven of 40 studies focused on Quality of life in social capital and economic mobility in tourism as the fourth central theme (see Table 4). This systematic review found that 13 studies focused on economic opportunities (EO) as a sub-theme of Quality of life. Two studies are slightly related to the sub-theme (see Table 4).

3.2.4.1. Economic opportunities

The arrival of COVID-19 and its restrictions on tourism activities have affected people’s mobility (Yang et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2022). In this matter, economics is likely to be the main factor as it changes the financial flow of living (Christensen et al., 2020) and causes a turnaround migration (urban to rural) (Halfacree, 1994). The turnaround migration is an excellent opportunity to increase the community’s Quality of life and finances (Christensen et al., 2020; Knollenberg et al., 2021). This opportunity will be a good encounter as they can move closer to their family members and network (Christensen et al., 2020; Longwood’s International, n.d). Tourism can be a close choice as it can affect local economic development by creating and growing new enterprises.

In addition, a new transition from tourist to community member can also contribute to the growth of a community’s workforce and tax base and has the potential to establish new businesses and entrepreneurial opportunities (Florida et al., 2011). This transformation can sweep down all the challenges: inadequate educational and development policies, a lack of infrastructure or difficulty of access, and the lack of skilled employees (Bouchon & Rawat, 2016). Effective local development can reduce disparities between poor and prosperous places, employment, and firms and increase private-sector investment (OECD, 2013a). For example, homestay tourism has been regarded as an opportunity to generate income for local communities and new entrepreneurs (Kontogeorgopoulos et al., 2015). The success of this program can alleviate poverty (Kumar et al., 2012), provide additional job opportunities (Regmi & Walter, 2016), and strengthen social relationships (Hamzah & Khalifah, 2012; Ibrahim & Razzaq, 2010).

The review shows that social capital and economic mobility are interrelated and equally important in destination-based sectors like tourism (Tavakolinia & Pouya, 2022). This is because a destination with viable social capital will enhance tourism assets, thus generating concentrated economic mobility (Lei et al., 2023). A prosperous place will motivate participation from the local community and, at the same time, attract a workforce from other regions. Improved quality of life results from a balanced match between social capital and economic mobility (Pramanik et al., 2019).

4. Discussion

This study presented a systematic review of social capital and economic mobility in tourism. The data showed an increasing trend of research in this area, with 14 new studies mainly conducted in 2023 alone. However, some gaps, for instance, still need to be addressed regarding the study’s scope and dimension. The review presented the themes and sub-themes that describe social capital and economic mobility. The data shows that these vary from some studies to others. Four main themes from the thematic analysis (community development, community adaptation, community participation, and Quality of life) have been derived that indicate a broad spectrum in identifying and understanding these concepts (Table 5).

Table 5. Themes and sub-theme-elaboration.

Themes	Sub-theme
Community Development	(TA) Tourism Assets
Community Adaptation	(DI) Development Initiatives
Community Participation	(CA) Community Actor
Quality of Life	(EO) Economic Opportunities

Four research sub-themes associated with social capital and economic mobility were identified: tourism assets, development initiatives, community actors and economic opportunities. The results show a variety of factors that shape social capital and economic mobility, including community development (Scheyvens et al., 2023; Sithole et al., 2018; Tomay & Tuboly, 2023; Yuliati et al., 2023), community adaptation (Bäker et al., 2021; Imbaya et al., 2019; Mathey et al., 2023), and community participation (Bærenholdt & Meged, 2023; Lei et al., 2023; Tavakolinia & Pouya, 2022) that will subsequently affect Quality of life (Dartanto et al., 2020). Figure 2 schematically explains the emerging relationship between all the variables identified through the systematic review.

Figure 2. Emerging relationship of social capital and economic mobility in tourism: a summary of existing literature.

Research on social capital highlighted that in tourism, social capital is responsible for encouraging the local community to develop a tourist destination into one place with significant improvement amid the pandemic. Evidence shows that tourism has positively contributed if strong community leaders were generated from the tourism sector (Lei et al., 2023). They will assist local groups in welcoming visitors, create regional integrated networks, increase trust and local participation in tourism, generate new ideas from tourism and ensure good communication and cooperation among stakeholders (Moscardo, 2012; Moscardo et al., 2013, 2017; Mura & Tavakoli, 2014; Zahra & McGehee, 2013). Skilled and educated labour was needed in these tourism development products to improve the knowledge of the local community, such as local councils, to increase the people’s participation in neighbourhood affairs (Tavakolinia & Pouya, 2022). An upcoming tourism product development can demand a workforce skilled in the product, especially frontline staff that can share knowledge about the production, style, and history (Knollenberg et al., 2021).

The findings from this study also reveal that economic mobility is severely lacking in existing tourism studies. Discussion on economic mobility has only appeared in studies focusing on its association with quality of life (Al-Omoush et al., 2022; Zengeya et al., 2023). Economics is the main factor affecting the retrenchment community’s mobility (reverse migration), as shown in Table 4. Mobility is not because income movements are intrinsically valuable but primarily because of the view -or the hope- that it helps attenuate the effects of disparities in initial endowments or social origins on future income prospects (Che Mat et al., 2016). A high level of community trust can easily overcome an organisational problem (Tomay & Tuboly, 2023). In other words, one contributor to sustainable tourism development is the link between social capital and local communities (Macbeth et al., 2004; Tavakoli et al., 2017).

The COVID-19 pandemic has made it evident that uncontrollable factors influence economic mobility. For example, the movement restrictions during COVID-19 imposed on national and international travel strongly negatively affected the tourism sector (Scuttari et al., 2021). It also led to the lowest productivity of people, impacted the production sector, and reduced the population’s average income (Prawoto et al., 2020). However, the combination of elements that can offer the right match between social capital and economic mobility still needs to be clarified. Hence, more research is needed to discover factors contributing to the right balance of social capital and economic mobility in hospitality and tourism.

Another finding emerging from the review is that most articles analysed are exploratory and employ a qualitative research approach. For qualitative studies, the strength lies in the depth and richness of the data collected and the rigour of the qualitative analysis methods employed. One of the clear weaknesses of these studies under review is the insufficient theoretical framework. Most of the studies lack a robust theoretical framework or fail to connect their findings to existing theories in the field. This signalled the newness of the study area that requires further attention. As different methodological approaches might lead to different research paradigms, more studies are required to further understand various perspectives of the concept through diverse and contrasting approaches.

5. Future work

The scholar aims to pledge a systematic literature review in identifying the previous findings and whether to add more suggestions or recommendations on what work to be done. The most noticeable aspect that should be highlighted is the need to expand the number of studies on social capital and economic mobility in tourism. The systematic search strategy, as adopted in this study, resulted in only 41 studies found in the initial stage, and after finalising the search process, 40 studies were found. The number of studies, however, is relatively small, and most evidence is limited/or limited to specific forms of tourism.

The researcher did the screening stage to include or exclude based on the suitable criteria; literature related to social capital and economic mobility in tourism has not received much attention in the tourism literature even though measurement approaches of the topic were taken. Therefore, it is unlikely that the available research has identified all the possible relationships between social capital and economic mobility in one study, especially in tourism (see Table 3). Evidence shows that advanced research has been done in tourism but points to a specific context only (Bäker et al., 2021; Christensen et al., 2020; Park et al., 2021).

However, some studies did mention economic mobility linked to COVID-19 but not thoroughly in tourism, such as Scuttari et al. (2021) and Yang et al. (2021). So, expanding the studies that use main themes (social capital and economic mobility) in the context of the tourism sector is recommended. The themes indicate an opportunity for future research to expand into diverse areas, such as the impact of social capital on tourist behaviour, sustainable tourism social capital and social capital in tourism employment. Future research in these areas can help advance our understanding of the complex relationship between social capital and tourism and provide valuable insights for policymakers, industry professionals, and academics seeking to promote sustainable and responsible tourism practices.

6. Conclusion

This study provides scholars in the hospitality and tourism field with an understanding of the potential impact of social capital on several states of economic mobility in various research contexts. This study suggests the best way of explaining economic mobility from a hospitality perspective by conducting a systematic literature review of the social capital in the said fields. It was observed that social capital could be linked with economic mobility in tourism. It has been noted that it has great significance for each element to discuss in this study, as they play a paramount role in influencing the decision of the community to let social capital stay in its original place, especially after the pandemic.

As the communities are reported to be the ones that face difficulties in surviving, they need to adapt, develop and participate in the sustainable tourism development of a destination. Apart from that, under the social capital, the stakeholders also need to take a role in considering a new plan and guide them on aspects and other factors related to development. Aside from that, social capital can overcome pressure, calmly accept the situation of stress, think positively, and find a solution to the challenges experienced amid COVID-19. The issue associated with the limited studies in this field is the need for future researchers to update a considerable sub-theme.

Disclosure statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the research presented in this manuscript. All authors have contributed substantially to the conception, design, and execution of the study, and they have reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.

Additional information

Funding

This study was made possible by financial support from the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia [FRGS/1/2021/SS0/UITM/02/11]. We express our gratitude to Universiti Teknologi MARA UiTM for their continuous support, which has been integral to the success of this research project.

Notes on contributors

Norliza Aminudin

Norliza Aminudin is a Professor of Tourism Management at the Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cawangan Selangor. After completing her Park, Recreation and Tourism degree at the University of Missouri-Columbia, United States of America, she continued her postgraduate degrees in Tourism Planning and Islamic Tourism Marketing. Her research and teaching interests include park and recreation, sustainable tourism, tourism planning, tourism marketing and Islamic tourism.

Salamiah A. Jamal

Salamiah A. Jamal is a Professor of Hospitality Management at the Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cawangan Selangor. She completed her PhD at Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia and her undergraduate studies at Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom. Dr Jamal’s research focuses on hospitality consumer behaviour transcending conventional boundaries, delving into general contexts and niche segments’ intricacies. Driven by a commitment to understanding the diverse dynamics of consumers, guests, visitors, travellers, and tourists, she illuminates pathways to enhance the hospitality experience.