Causes and effects of urban water scarcity on households in Daye town administration, Southern Ethiopia

Abstract

This descriptive research was conducted in Daye town, Ethiopia, to assess the causes and effects of urban water scarcity on households. To this end, stratified sampling from probability, purposive and convenience from non-probability sampling techniques as well as primary and secondary sources of data were used. A questionnaire was distributed among selected 279 households and analyzed using SPSS-version-21. The major indicator of water scarcity used is the Falkenmark indicator. The study found that the sample households had an amount of water consumption per individual that was 10.52-liter per day. Water is considered to be accessible if an individual consumes 1700 m³ per year, according to the Falkenmark indicator. However, the individual in the town receives 3.83 m³ per year, which is an absolute scarcity. The causes of water scarcity were population growth and urbanization, lack of finance, and lack of institutional, technological, and managerial capacity. The effects were health and economic. There was waterborne disease due to a shortage of water and quality problems of available water sources found from unprotected nearby rivers. The economic cost included money spent on the purchase of water from vendors and the repair of old pipes. Likewise, the study revealed that service provision regarding water was poor and unequal. Thus, the study recommends that the drilling of additional boreholes, capacity building of water service offices, sustainable financing strategy, and participation of NGOs and private sectors in the water system are compulsory.

IMPACT STATEMENT

This paper is focused on the causes and effects of urban water scarcity on households in Daye town administration, southern Ethiopia. Water scarcity is a lack of secure access to water to satisfy basic demands (standards). Ethiopia is said to be a water tower of Africa but, a lack of potable water supply is common, and half of the population is affected by water scarcity. The water supply of the large cities in Ethiopia is supported by the World Bank and other donors, while most of the small towns are forgotten. The finance depends on the service charges being collected from the water beneficiaries of each town, which is very low in number to finance the needs of a growing population. Moreover, the capacity of the local water services offices remained low which needs skilled human resources, finance, and broad areas of policy intervention.

Keywords:

• Water scarcity
• Falkenmark indicator
• Daye town

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Robert Read, Economics, University of Lancaster, Lancaster, UK

SUBJECTS:

• Cities & The Developing World
• Urban Development
• Urban Studies
• Urban Policy
• Cities & Infrastructure
• Cities & Infrastructure (Urban Studies)

1. Introduction and rationale

Water is a natural limited source, but fundamental to the life and health of human beings, the pressure is increasing to provide clean drinking water to people. As demand increases, water resources are becoming scarcer (Lisa, 2009, p. 7). Water scarcity is defined from the perspective of individual water users who lack secure access to safe and affordable water to consistently satisfy their needs for food production, drinking, washing, or livelihoods (Inkan, 2015, p. 42).

There is a finite amount of fresh water on our planet, only 3% of the total water and less than 1% is readily usable by humans (Lloyd, 2010, p. 5) and more of it is being polluted. Thus, water scarcity is likely to be one of the key challenges facing the world in the 21st century (Lloyd, 2010, p. 5). In 2014, 3.9 billion people, or 54% of the global population lived in cities, and by 2050; two-thirds of the global population will be living in cities, which will generate 55% additional water demand in the world (Arfanuzzaman & Rahman, 2017, p. 1).

Water in the sub-Saharan Africa region is not only scarce but also of exceptionally poor quality due to pollution as well as unreliable supply of infrastructure, only a small percentage of what little water is available can be used for human consumption (Kimutai et al., 2018, p. 1). According to Khatri and Vairavamoorthy (2007, p. 4), the daily supply rate of un-piped water in East Africa was nearly a third less than for piped users of low-income communities. The quality of water that people receive is also questionable.

The problem of water scarcity is common in the cities and towns of Ethiopia and developing countries. A great difference existed between developed and developing countries in the amount of water an individual receives per annum. Indeed though Ethiopia has abundant water resources, for centuries numerous Ethiopian people have suffered from a lack of access to safe drinking water and it has not yet served the population to any significant extent (Kibret & Tulu, 2014, p. 60). According to Borgen Project, 2021 (para. 3) more than 60 million Ethiopian people are affected by water scarcity. The challenge in any situation is to maintain a year-round supply that is adequate to meet growing people’s needs.

Growth in population and economic activities as well as expansion of urbanization would entail increasing demand for water (Arsiso et al., 2017, p. 22). Water scarcity has widened in Ethiopian urban centers despite continuous efforts by the government to provide a potable water supply to the rapidly growing urban population. Furthermore, there are inefficient institutional and managerial capacities in town administrations to increase investment and manage the delivery of services to provide water infrastructure (Haile (personal communication, November 22, 2014)). The situation in Daye town was not exceptional.

Several studies were conducted on urban water scarcity. For instance, the study, which is done by Akkaroboyina and Desta (2018, pp. 883–887) stated that, an inefficient water source and poor distribution of water, infrastructure, lack of technological capacity, weak institutional coordination, inefficient financial resource, and shortage of efficient manpower as the main undermining root cause. According to Minwuye (2015, p. 4), the unavailability of safe, adequate, and affordable water seriously affects the social, economic, and health conditions of society. Specifically, the children and women who are directly involved in water collecting and managing activities at household levels are more vulnerable to problems.

The finding of the aforementioned studies focused on causes, challenges, and impacts of urban water supply problems conducted at the national level indicated that causes of urban water scarcity varied from place to place despite a few common problems. However, this study is peculiar from other studies as it encompasses the inefficient administration and intensification of corruption, weak institutional performance, and absence of cooperation between stakeholders as a cause and their effect on urban water scarcity. Furthermore, the issue of urban water scarcity itself was not deeply observed.

Likewise, the Daye town administration has a problem with a clean water supply. South Television (STV) December 6, 2020 report stated that the town has urban water scarcity problems and this was irritating residents of the town. According to 2019/20 Water service office annual report, they had planned to distribute 144,000 cubic meters of water and achieved (distributed) only 81,930 cubic meters (56.89%) to 41,736 of the town’s population.

In addition, currently, there were different social and economic developments in the town administration. For instance, Daye campus of Hawassa University had started the teaching-learning process. Also, one Referral hospital building and Agro-industrial park construction which focused on coffee production had started in the town. Thus, all these projects need additional water services. This will affect the future of the projects and the livelihoods of the town’s residents. Moreover, there was rapid urban population growth, illegal constructions or settlements, and quick urbanization have been seen since 2015 in the town (Daye Town Municipality Office, 2020).

1.1. Objectives of the study

The specific objectives of the study are the following:

1. To identify the causes of water scarcity in Daye town.

2. To assess the health and economic effects of inadequate urban water supply in the town.

3. To assess the performance of the water supply institution regarding the provision of service to the town.

4. To assess the participation of the town’s population in water supply schemes.

2. Literature review

Among the causes of water scarcity, population growth, and urbanization remains the most important factor. This is because; increasing population growth in urban areas causes demand for water for domestic and other purposes. Responses for such demands are low due to the lack of financial capacities in countries like Ethiopia.

2.1. Water scarcity dimensions

According to Molle and Mollinga (2003, pp. 530–531), water scarcity has various dimensions. Managerial scarcity occurs when the system of water remains without being maintained or managed properly. Users cannot be served properly due to the leakages everywhere. Institutional scarcity is failing to meet the balance of water supply and demand due to inadequate technological and institutional innovations. Economic scarcity deals with the inability to provide for example due to a lack of committed human resources and financial capacity to access water amenities.

2.2. Impacts of water scarcity

Health impact of water scarcity: Due to the scarcity of water, people suffer poor hygiene and sanitation problems which can result in diseases and infections. Lack of safe and clean drinking water kills children more than Malaria, pneumonia, and HIV combined. Half of the hospital beds in the entire world are absorbed by people suffering from water-borne diseases (Chakkaravarthy & Balakrishnan, 2019, p. 190).

Economic impact of water scarcity: economic impacts are difficulties in getting access to water for consumption (Dolan et al., 2021, p. 2). For example, it includes increasing cost that limits beneficiaries from utilizing. Due to waterborne diseases, the family spends more expenses on health care.

Social impact of water scarcity: in many cultures, especially the global south, the role of collecting water remains in the hands of women. This exacerbates not only gender inequality but also affects women’s education. Waterborne diseases are dangerous for the health of children and women.

Water scarcity is a serious global concern. The literature on the causes and impacts of water scarcity analyzes socio-economic, policy dimensions, and community involvement to deal with problems. Moreover, recent studies stated that undertaking policy reforms, sustainable management of available water systems, context-based approach, equity, innovation, and engagements of different actors are considered as key to alleviating household water scarcity.

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Description of the study area

The study area, Daye town administration, is found in Sidama¹ Zone,² Southern Nation, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPRS), Ethiopia. It is located to the south of Addis Ababa at a distance of 410 km and 131 km from the southwest of Hawassa city, the capital of the region.

The town lies approximately at 6⁰23’N latitude and 38⁰74 up to 39⁰9’E longitude, and it experiences a tropical type of climate. It is characterized by moderately hot temperatures. Its mean annual temperature ranges from 12.6 °C-22.5 °C and the mean annual rainfall is 800–1,200 milliliter. The surface runoff flows affect the town usually during the rainy season due to the poor drainage system.

Regarding surface water, the town of Daye has three surrounding rivers, Konkana, Bonora, and Adilo. Some parts of the town fall within the bigger Bonora and Konkana drainage basin. Accordingly, all rivers which were found around the town drain into different local rivers and lastly empty into the Bonora River. The town is also surrounded by nearby Kebeles³ of Bensa Woreda⁴ administration, namely: Sadaware, Shanta-Golba, Shanta-Wene, Bombe, and Huro-Tiwiro. According to a recently updated master plan, the town′s boundaries have extended to 3,491.03 hectares (Asset Management Plan (AMP) of Daye town administration municipality office, 2018, p. 9) (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Map of the study area.

Source: Sidama Zone Housing and Urban Development Bureau, 2020.

3.2. Research design and approach

The researchers employed a descriptive survey design. This is because; the descriptive study is concerned with the present and attempts to determine the status of the phenomenon under investigation (Singh, 2006, p. 104). So, this design gives an exact description of the current water scarcity issue in Daye town. Regarding method or approach, this study employed both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis. This is because the mixed method involves the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data in response to research questions and includes analysis of both forms of data (Creswell, 2014, p. 266).

3.3. Sampling procedure and techniques

Among six town administrations of the Sidama zone, Daye town is selected purposively. The reason for selecting the town is that it is one of the fastest-growing towns out of six town administrations (Sidama Zone Housing and Urban Development Bureau, 2020). In addition, the town is serving as the seat of Bensa woreda. As a result, available infrastructures are unable to fulfill the demands of the increasing population.

Currently, there are six kebeles in the town administration (Bocesa-Golba, Damo, Ejersa, Wene Godicho, Mirado, and Menaharia). Among six kebeles, the researcher selected three kebeles; this was due to time and monetary capacity limitations. To select kebele, the researcher used stratified sampling based on proportional allocation, or the same percentages of sample size are assigned based on ratios of participants in each kebele (see Table 1). This is because all kebeles were not uniform in terms of infrastructure and population; available water supplies themselves were not the same among the six kebeles. For example, according to the town’s water service office 2020, Bocesa Golba kebele had a problem of water scarcity more than any other kebeles.

Table 1. Sampling method and sample household selection from each kebele based on proportion.

No	List of selected kebeles	Total household per-kebele	Sample households of each kebele = sample size (279) × household size of each kebele ÷ total households of three kebeles (926)
1	Bocesa-Golba	224	67
2	Daamo	378	114
3	Ejersa	324	98
Total		926	279

Source: Researchers calculation, 2020.

On the other hand, Damo kebele, relatively found in the hinterland of the town and the third populous kebele of the town; has a problem with water supply and distribution because of its remoteness, which encompasses Daye Primary level Hospital whereas; Ejersa kebele, found in the hub of the town, available water sources were relatively better than other kebele’s, pipelines were installed long ago and lived for many years in comparison with others. Furthermore, almost all available infrastructures (except current undertakings) of the town are found in this kebele, including health centers, schools, and public service offices. This is because of its proximity to the center of the town (being part of the inner city), and previously the rest of the kebeles were expanded from this part of the town.

The researchers selected the aforementioned three kebele based on criteria or characteristics which are related to; availability of water supply, infrastructures, amount of population, and kebele’s proximity to the center of the town after dividing kebeles into the strata. Also, a criterion was formed based on the pilot study (survey), personal judgment, and the experience of the researcher.

The target populations of this study were dwellers of Daye town and the units of analysis were heads of households for both male and female-headed households. According to the town’s Municipality, Finance, and Economic Development office 2020 report, the total population of Daye town is 41,736 and among them 19,432 (47%) were females and 22,304 (53%) were males. The total household sizes of the town were 2,077 households and among them, 926 households were found in three selected kebeles (Daye Town Municipality Office, 2020).

To determine the total sample size of respondents, the researcher used the sample size determination formula, which is developed by Yamane (as cited in Israel, 1992, p. 4). Then, using this formula, this study determined the total sample size of the study as follows: $$n=\frac{\mathrm{N}}{{1+N(e}^2)}$$

Where; n = is the sample size,

N = population size and

e = is the level of precision (e= +5) $$n=\frac{926}{{1+926\left(0.05\right)}^2}$$ $$n=\frac{926}{1+2.315}$$ $$n=\frac{926}{3.316}$$

Therefore, n = 279.25 ≈ 279

To select households from each kebele, the researchers used convenience sampling from non-probability sampling techniques. This is due to easy accessibility and availability of respondents. The researchers got the households at their residential areas in each kebeles.

3.4. Data collection instruments

3.4.1. Survey questionnaire

These survey questionnaires were prepared to collect data from survey households on the view associated with; causes and consequences of water scarcity, the performance of the water supply institutions in terms of service provision, the flow of water per month, and the amount of water they use daily (in liters) and participation of community on water supply projects. It was conducted by the researcher himself and with the help of five data collectors, (a few days after three hours of training on general questionnaire explication and attributes of the ethical researcher) on sample households, those chosen from three kebeles.

3.4.2. Interview guideline

The interview guideline was prepared for key personnel of Daye town Water Service, Municipality, and Health center office, by using both open-ended and close-ended types of questions. The structured personal interview method was used with the predetermined questions.

The researchers used the purposive sampling technique to select a sample of the key personnel from the stakeholder institutions. The selection was based on the respondents experience, knowledge of the water/infrastructure associated jobs (specific qualities), and their position in a particular organization to provide the necessary information to address research questions. The information was collected from 17 key personnel of Daye town water service office, municipality office, and the health center. The researchers interviewed on the first, third, and fourth objectives of the study; causes of water scarcity, the institutional responses, and the participation of towns residents in the water supply.

3.4.3. Focus group discussion guideline

Concerning Focus Group Discussion (FGDs), participants were selected based on non-probability sampling techniques through purposive sampling. They were male and female heads of households. For this study, the researcher prepared three FGDs with ten members from each of the three selected kebeles.

The researchers conducted structured FGDs with water beneficiary households of three selected kebele’s; on their views related to causes and consequences of water scarcity, participation of the town’s population in water supply activities, and performances of water supply institutions by using structured open-ended questions. The researcher used a checklist for focus group discussions.

3.4.4. Observation checklist

In this study, the researchers used structured observation. The observation was recorded in a notebook and an activity revolving around water fetching areas and leakage of water in the town was photographed during data collection. This was used to bring a clear picture of activities that existed in the study area.

3.5. Method of data analysis

Using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 21, the quantitative data were analyzed and results were presented employing descriptive statistics in the form of tables, graphs, and charts. Also, the qualitative data were presented in the form of narration and then triangulated with quantitative data.

The Falkenmark indicator of water scarcity was used as a standard to measure water scarcity in Daye town. The indicator thresholds 1700 m³ and 1000 m³ per capita per time are used as a threshold between water stress and scarce areas, independently. Falkenmark (as cited in Matlock, 2011, p. 1) (Table 2).

Table 2. The water barrier differentiation.

Index m3 per capita	Category/condition
>1700	No stress
1,000–1,700	Stress
500–1,000	Scarcity
<500	Absolute scarcity

Source: Nepomilueva (2017, p. 10).

4. Data analysis and discussions

4.1. Demographic characteristics of respondents

The size of the sample household for this study was 279. Out of those, 11 respondents did not respond to survey questionnaires, making the total number of respondents who participated to be 268.

4.1.1. Sex and age of sample households

Among the sample households, 66% were male-headed and the rest 34% were female-headed households. This shows that the majority of the households are male-headed. However, the heavy task of water collection is mainly related to women rather than men. They often suffer most from a lack of access to water and sanitation. This could also affect their socio-economic and health conditions. When water has to be collected at a distant source, there are risks, both direct and indirect to health. It is usually women who collect water and they may be physically attacked while performing this task and carrying heavy loads may also cause spinal injuries (World Health Organizations, 2003, p. 15).

Concerning age composition, 14.6% of the respondents are found in the age category of 18–26. The majority 29.5% in the age group of 27–34, 20.9% in the age category of 35–42, and also 20.9% in the age category of 43–50, while, 8.6% in the age group of 51–58, 3.7% of the respondents were in the age category of 59–66 years and the rest 1.9% of respondents were above 67 years. This means that almost all of the sample respondents were found in working-age between 18–65 years and only 5% of them were found in the older age group. This indicates that the majority of them can fetch water from a distant place for household consumption.

4.2. Causes of water scarcity in Daye town

4.2.1. Population growth and urbanization

The participants of FGDs underlined this during their discussion by stating that ‘water reservoir building or pipe in the town was installed in 1989 (before 30 years). During that time, the population of the town was less than 5,000’. Currently, the population in the town has highly increased and doubled by more than eight-fold and until recently, the population is served by those projects, which were built to serve less than 5,000 residents of the town. Now populations of the town are above 41,000 (Daye Town Administration Water Service Office, 2020).

In the same way, an interview with Daye town municipality office infrastructure supply and provision officers demonstrated that the rate of population growth especially after 2015 is highly increasing in the town. This is because the town has had self-administration status since the mid of 2015/16. The town was under Bensa woreda administration before 2016. Zone government decided to make structural reforms to grant administration status and appointed a mayor separating from Bensa woreda. This makes Daye town the capital of Daye town administration, the seat of Bensa woreda and the largest town in the southwest Sidama zone attracting a large number of migrants from 9 woredas who need access to urban land. Then demand for urban land around the peri-urban areas of the town has increased and this causes fast urbanization.

Similarly, the finding result of Maina (2014, p. 42) agreed with the finding of this study. He showed that the leading causes of inadequate water supply were rapid population increase and urbanization, which has been exacerbated by the rapid infrastructural development which has strained the available water facilities. Besides, the study by Kimutai et al. (2018, p. 63) revealed that high population growth was a major cause of water scarcity in Eldoret town, Nigeria. This is because of the increase in water demand which only translates to a reduced level of resources and thus not always available due to rapid water withdrawal.

The aforementioned discussion stated that available water projects were unable to fulfill the demands of the increasing population in the town. Therefore, this implied that there should be sufficient infrastructural development in the town; which fulfills the demand of the growing population.

4.2.2. Insufficient financial resources

Interview with Daye town Municipality officials proved that the town did not allocate enough budgets to urban infrastructural development because of financial resource shortages. Furthermore, officials of the Water Service Office during the interview said that: ‘the town does not allocate budget to water service office that is there is no allocation of budget from town administration to water service office at all. Office consumes budget by collecting service charges from town’s water beneficiaries’.

The availability of the budget also depended on the existence of a water service in the town. This budget collected from service charges was used for employee’s salary, maintenance service, per diem, and to run different office activities. Moreover, there were no NGOs that support the town’s water service financially. Likewise, UN-HABITAT (2003, p. 118) stated that funding limitations are often mentioned as a key cause of inadequacy to provide water. This includes a lack of funding from most international agencies which was linked to the low priority that most choose to give to water in urban areas. The situation in Daye town was similar to this view. Thus, lack of finance from town administration and concerned government bodies, private individuals, and NGOs was one of the major causes of water shortage in the town.

On the other hand, intensification of poverty, lack of good governance, and shortage of financial capacity to provide necessary facilities in small urban centers are increasing problems more and more. Also, the financial problem in Ethiopia, which is regarded as a major determinant to provide water access to urban residents is a great challenge for local governments. Furthermore, local stakeholders as well as private engagement in managing and protecting water resources, which is crucial to identify, mitigate and reduce the water scarcity problem in urban centers are very low (World Water Forum (WWF), 2017, p. 20).

4.2.3. Weak institutional coordination

85.8% of respondents reported that there was weak coordination between different service provision institutions; such as the town’s water service office and the town’s electricity district office. During the discussion with FGDs participants, they said that ‘when electricity service stopped, immediately water services also cut off. Due to the financial constraints, there were no other options like installing power generators.’ Similarly, an interview with the Water Service Office workers in 2020 proved that there was weak coordination between different service delivery institutions, for instance; the water service office, municipality, and electricity district office.

The study result by (Molle & Mollinga, 2003, p. 531) stated that ‘managerial scarcity’⁵ may occur because the water systems are not properly managed or maintained, improper management causes the water scarcity since users who should normally receive water fail to be served properly. Lack of internal or outside institutional coordination can exacerbate water scarcity problems. As a result, there was low service delivery institution coordination in the town, which had a great connectedness with water service.

4.3. Consequences of inadequate urban water supply in the town

Respondents are asked about the consequences of an inadequate urban water supply in the town. 29% of them responded that an inadequate water supply brought a health impact on their livelihood, which means they are affected by economically and socially (see literature review) whereas 27% of respondents responded that it had an impact on their economy, 23% of the respondents said that it had a social impact on their life and the rest 21% of the respondents responded that water scarcity brought all impacts such as health,⁶ economic⁷ and social⁸ in the study area.

4.3.1. Health impacts of water scarcity

The interview with health center officials and health extension workers proved that there were water-related diseases in the town. According to officials, these diseases were related to a lack of water for personal hygiene and drinking contaminated water causing an excess burden of infectious diseases like Typhoid, Diarrhea, Cholera, Amoeba, Typhus, and Guardia, especially among children and women. Furthermore, during personal observation, the researchers observed vendors and household water users who fetch water from unprotected sources, and nearby rivers in the town.

Similarly, 29% of the respondents highlighted that they have suffered from health problems due to an inadequate water supply. Similarly, (92%) of the sampled households were affected by or faced water-related health problems and the rest 8% of the respondents reported that they were not affected by any water-related health problems. This implied that 92% of households faced water-related health problems; specifically in terms of sanitary problems and the prevalence of water-borne diseases.

According to Kebede and Gobena (2004, pp. 24–25), the normal functioning of the human body depends entirely upon an acceptable volume and quality of water. But, if the water is from defiled sources, it causes multitudinous water-associated illnesses. Similarly, the finding result of Kimutai et al. (2018, p. 64) stated that ‘water shortages have directly and indirectly led to the increase in waterborne disease in urban settlements’. Thus, failure by relevant stakeholders like water supply institutions and supporting organizations in addressing the water supply situation has led to the resident’s huge health crisis. Moreover, the survey by WHO highlighted that, each day 30,000 people die from water-associated diseases and in developing countries, 80% of all illnesses are water-associated. Similar to the view of the above studies, the majority of the respondents in the study area were affected by water-related health problems.

This showed that there were a few proactive measures undertaken to protect residents from water-borne diseases. There were limited cooperative actions regarding disease prevention and announcing the problem to the public and concerned bodies. Thus, water-related health problem was a major issue in the town.

Sample households were also asked to reveal the types of diseases that affect them due to the availability of unprotected water sources or lack of potable water for drinking. Accordingly, 38% of the respondents said that typhoid was a type of disease they suffered from, and 32% and 30% of households responded to diarrhea and cholera as diseases that they suffered, respectively.

4.3.2. Economic impacts of water scarcity

Among total sample households, (36%) of the household heads responded that water scarcity affected their economy because of the cost for purchase of water from jerrycans, 24% said that they purchased bottled water, 21% responded that they paid out for unexpected costs to repair of pipes and 18% reported that water scarcity brought all of the aforementioned impacts on their economy.

The qualitative data gathered from FGD participants informed that when water supply was interrupted, town residents paid 15–20 Ethiopian birr frequently for one jerrycan which contain 20 liters of water. We took the average 17.5 and calculated with the regular interruption of 4 days per week as per the responses of the majority, that is (17.5x4 = 70x4 = 280 birr monthly). This is without considering maintenance and associated costs. When it is compared with the income and expenditure, it was found to be half of the total monthly earnings of 7.8% and expenditures of 10.1% percent of the total respondents. The respondents added that it was too heavy for the larger family and low-income households which had brought high costs to their livelihood. Similarly, the study result of Kidanie (2015, p. 46) revealed that the high price which is paid by vendors restricts to consumption of a high amount of water. So, people cannot satisfy their domestic demand with some amount of water.

On the other hand, the study result of Ngima (2015, p. 36) showed that water-borne diseases require a treatment that needs finance and hence it influenced their economic activities. This is because; that finance would have been used on other activities that would generate another additional income for their livelihood. Thus, scarcity of water affected the economy of the households negatively in the town (Figure 2).

Figure 2. The economic impacts of water scarcity.

Source: Household survey, 2020.

4.4. Performance of water supply institutions regarding service provision of the town

The respondents were asked to respond to the condition or status of the current water supply service of the town. 41% of the households responded that the current service provision of water is poor, 38.9% said it was very poor and the rest 19.4% of households said that it was good and 0.7% replied that they did not know.

The water service office in the town had limited human resources. According to the annual report of the office, the water service officers who have skills in hydrology and water resource prefers to live in the largest cities like Hawassa and Addis Ababa, due to the relative accessibilities of necessary infrastructures. The office has tried to convince them to be employed in the town and to solve the problems related to water being in the town. It is stated that the office doesn’t get those professionals and the performance in this regard remained vacant in the report. Moreover, there are vacant positions in the office which are not occupied by anyone. The water service office in the town indicated that there are a limited amount of human resources which is below the required level and the number of active employees at the water service office was 18. According to the office, they need 55–60 employees to address the water issues. There is a limitation in terms of the capacity to give the required service to the town’s residents.

On the other hand, respondent households were asked to answer whether the current water service that they got from the water service office is equitable to all customers or not (see Figure 3). Concerning this, (66.4%) of households said that the service was unequal. Similarly, participants of FGDs rose about the condition and equity of the current water supply service of the town and said that the existing water supply was unevenly distributed with the favor of the richest individuals in the town. For instance, during water service installation, the officials give the priority to the localities of the richest sections of society. The others who are living around the outskirts of the town are obliged to use water from nearby springs or buy from the neighbors who have private taps. This meant that there was no equal distribution of water supply services between high and low-income households.

Figure 3. Status of the equity of the water supply service in the town.

Source: Household survey, 2020.

On the other hand, the average annual individual water consumption of the town was 3.83 m³. To check the reliability of the responses of individual households the researchers asked total amount of supply of water per individual. Accordingly, the Daye town water supply office, infrastructure provision, and planning core process from the municipality have asked, and the responses were triangulated to identify accurate water consumption per individual. Also, their responses agree with each other. Nevertheless, according to all measurements, there was no water even for basic human requirements and this showed that there was absolute water scarcity (<500 m³ per individual) in the town as compared to the Falkenmark indicator.

4.5. Participation of the town’s population in water supply schemes

Sample households were asked to know whether they are involved in water supply schemes (for example, water storage facilities, distribution infrastructures, protecting reservoirs, rivers, and boreholes) or not. According to the study result, out of surveyed households, (61.2%) of them did not participate at all in any water supply schemes and the rest 38.8% had participated in water supply schemes in the study area. Likewise, the majority of FGD participants during their discussion agreed that they did not take part in water supply activity work in their town.

Minwuye (2015, p. 53) stated that water supply projects are not likely to achieve their objective without the active involvement of the communities. Users would have to be involved directly or indirectly in the development, planning, implementation, operation, and maintenance; which are fundamental elements of the sustainability of water supply schemes. He also emphasized that the user’s involvement in every phase of water supply development is crucial to the sustainability of schemes (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Household’s participation at different stages of water supply schemes in the study area.

Source: Own survey, 2020.

Concerning the stage of community participation in water supply, the finding revealed that out of 38.8% of respondents (who had participated in water supply schemes), 47% of households have actively participated during the planning stages of water supply schemes while 19% have participated in all phases and the rest 14%, 14% and 6% of respondents were participated in leakage and theft prevention, construction, and management aspects after construction, respectively.

From this study, the researchers understood that there was a high level of participation during the planning phase. This includes preliminary participation like attending the meeting and displaying the necessity of water supply schemes. But, the majority of users did not participate during construction and after the construction phases. This signified that the people left their participation after the planning phase (especially after attending the meetings) and then no one took part in water supply schemes except a few participants. However, Ananga (2015, p. 39) stated that communities should be made aware of the burden of responsibility during participation in water supply projects. He further stated that communities should know that the project belongs to them and that its failure or success falls on their shoulders. He also pointed out that, full participation of communities is needed in all phases of water supply projects.

Thus, the above finding confirmed that the majority of the respondents were not involved in the water supply projects and decision-making in the town. It was identified that the participating household themselves were involved in the preliminary phases (planning) and left without taking part in the next crucial phases. Thus, a low level of community participation in water supply projects and decision-making not only exacerbated the water scarcity but also weakens service delivery and introduced new technologies, which can diminish water shortage.

5. Conclusion and recommendation

5.1. Conclusion

Water scarcity is one of the key challenges facing the world in the 21^st century. This is because, only three percent of the water on earth is fresh water and usable by humans, and even more of that water is being polluted. Water scarcity affects 61 million people in Ethiopia who do not have access to the potable water supply. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the causes and consequences of urban water scarcity on households in Daye town.

The findings that we have presented suggest that the disparity between population growth, urban expansion, and water supply infrastructure created water scarcity in the town. Due to the low availability of water as well as quality problems of available water supplies, a huge number of households faced water-related health problems. This means a lot of finance was used by the residents for treatment, which in turn influenced their economic activities. From the findings of the study, it can be concluded that communities were poorly informed about almost all aspects of water service delivery in the town. This has affected the involvement of the community in the water supply which would have been benefiting them a lot. This means the local community’s knowledge through their experience was not considered in the practical stages.

While this study dealt with water scarcity at the household or domestic level, it does not examine water scarcity and its impact on agriculture, service, industry, and the rest of the sectors. As a cross-sectional study, data has been collected from a specific point in time. Studying water scarcity from different perspectives is crucial for formulating policies at local, national, regional, and global levels. This is because governance and public policy failures often lead to water scarcity. Thus, battling water scarcity is a complex issue; it needs multi-disciplinary approaches and policy interventions.

5.2. Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following practical suggestions were forwarded to minimize water scarcity in the study area.

• There should be a need for a sustainable financing strategy for the water service office of the town. Lack of adequate funding was one of the causes of water scarcity in the town. There should be regular and adequate fund allocation for the town’s water service office from the Daye town administration.

• The researchers also recommended that improving the town’s sanitation coverage should be undertaken. Water should be accessed every day by the residents since improved sanitation requires water for proper functioning and this will improve the town’s sanitation coverage. Sanitation around traditional sources (streams) must be assessed by the town’s municipality, health, and water service office to mitigate the occurrence of disease and control pollution and contamination.

• The study further recommends that there should be a need for raising the capacity building of the town’s water service office. The quantity of water planned to distribute in the town was 144,000m³ and the quantity of water distributed was 81,930m³ (56%) or half of the planned was distributed. This stipulated that there is a gap in the capacity to distribute the amounts of water planned. The town administration in collaboration with the region and zonal governments should build the capacity of the town’s Water Service Office.

• Strong institutional performance is another recommendation proposed for the town’s Water Service Office: There should be adequate human resource capacity for planning and management of water activities in the town. There should also be strong coordination, clear roles, and responsibilities among the town’s Water Service Office and other sectors in the town.

Acknowledgments

Our sincere appreciation goes to the field assistants (household data collectors, kebele officials, interview, and FGDs participants). Furthermore, we would like to thank institutions like Daye town Water Service office, Revenue Authority and Municipality office for providing relevant information for this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

Daye Town Revenue Authority office and office of the Mayor of Daye town administration provided financial support during the process of data collection.

Notes on contributors

Melese Tefo Worasa

Melese Tefo Worasa (MA) has studied Governance and Development Studies and Development Management in undergraduate and postgraduate studies. Currently, he is studying MA in Development Studies at the ISS, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Hague, Netherlands. Before joining ISS, he has been working as a lecturer and researcher at Jimma University, Ethiopia. His area of research includes water scarcity, urban development and service provision, urban planning, social policy, poverty and inequality.

Asfaw Gnefato

Asfaw Gnefato (PhD) is an assistant professor at Hawassa University, his area of research interest is urban poverty, livelihood, enterprises, and urban infrastructure. Mulugeta Bakkalo (PhD) is an assistant professor at Hawassa University, his area of research focuses on urban poverty, livelihoods, food (in) security, and urban expansion. Yirga Goraw (MA) is a lecturer of the Department of PADM, at Assossa University. His research area includes urban services, public policy, and local development.

Notes

1 An ethnic group inhabiting the central southern part of Ethiopia.

2 The second-level administrative subdivisions of Ethiopia, below regions or above Woredas.

3 The smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia

4 Administrative unit in Ethiopia, higher than Kebele

5 Managerial scarcity is the type of water scarcity constraint, which includes the lack of appropriate management of the water systems.

6 The health impact of water scarcity means a lack of safe water for drinking and basic hygiene at home consumption. When the water is scarce, households consume water from non-hygienic and contaminated sources. They will be subject to the threat of contracting diseases like Cholera and Diarrhea.

7 Economic Impacts of water scarcity: this means water-associated costs that the heads of households paid to buy water from vendors, purchase bottled water, and the cost of repair of old pipes.

8 Social impact of water scarcity: this is particularly true in low-income households. These households don’t have the income to buy bottled water from a nearby shop, unlike high-income households, are unable to meet the cost of domestic use of water. Thus, water scarcity can have a devastating effect on them.