https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6720-7231
Abstract
The study aimed to determine the effects of using mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM) on the quality of bologna-type chicken sausage and chicken frankfurters. Sausages were formulated with control (0%), 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100% MDCM replacing the chicken breast meat as raw material. The use of MDCM caused an increase in pH value of both sausage types. The use of MDCM up to 20% had no significant effect on TBARS value, while 40% MDCM and higher levels caused an increase in TBARS value. L* value of sausages was affected by MDCM. MDCM had no significant effect on a* value in bologna-type sausage, however, it increased a* value in frankfurters. A dispersion between the MDCM level and the textural properties in sausage types was determined by PCA, and the 20% MDCM group showed the closest relationship to control group in PCA. The results of heatmap of textural parameters showed that the use of more than 20% MDCM was not possible in bologna type sausage, although frankfurters were the same main cluster except 100% MDCM group.
1. Introduction
Emulsion-type meat products belonging to cooked sausage groups can be divided into different classes with regard to the spice and additives used, as well as factors such as the degree of chopping, consumption type (USDA, Citation2020). The products such as frankfurter and bologna type sausage play an important role in meeting protein needs as they are widely produced and consumed because of their low cost (Santos Alves et al., Citation2017).
Beef, pork, chicken and turkey meat are used as raw materials for the production of emulsion-type meat products. The fact that it is cheaper than red meat is a major factor in using more poultry meat in the manufacture of processed meat products (Savadkoohi et al., Citation2013). In addition, it is accepted that mechanically deboned meat (MDM) due to emulsification capacity, emulsion stability and water-holding capacity is a good raw material for emulsified meat products (Colmenero, Citation2014; Dadmehr et al., Citation2022). However, the mechanical process of removing meat from the bone causes high-fat level, rapid oxidation and perishability and these properties limit its use in emulsified meat products such as frankfurter and bologna type sausage (Massingue et al., Citation2018).
In the industry, MDM, which is generally obtained from chicken, is widely used in emulsified meat products that do not need a fibrous texture (Daros et al., Citation2005). Mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM) contains more iron and fat than manually deboned chicken meat, and shows darker color due to high heme content (Massingue et al., Citation2018; Pereira et al., Citation2011). It has also high cholesterol and phospholipid content because of bone marrow passes into meat, thus more polyunsaturated fatty acids. In addition, MDM has more ash and calcium content (M. A. Mohamed et al., Citation2023; Savadkoohi et al., Citation2013). Moreover, the mechanical process of removing meat from the bone causes cell breakage and protein denaturation, which leads to structural changes (Daros et al., Citation2005; H. M. Mohamed & Mansour, Citation2012; Pereira et al., Citation2011).
There is no information about the effect of using MDCM (partial or total replecament) on the physico-chemical, sensorial and technological properties of bologna-type sausage. On the other hand, there are few studies on the effects of different MDCM ratios on the instrumental textural properties of frankfurter sausage (Famenin et al., Citation2019; Lee et al., Citation2011; Savadkoohi et al., Citation2013). The aim of this study was to determine the effects of different proportions (0% - control, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%) of MDCM as a replacer for chicken meat on the textural and some physicochemical properties of bologna type sausage and frankfurter made from chicken meat. The other aim of the study was to evaluate the relationships between the TPA parameters and the MDCM ratio based on the results of the principal components analysis (PCA).
2. Material and methods
2.1. Material
Bologna-type sausages and frankfurters were made separately according to commercial formulations. Chicken breast and chicken skin as well as mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM) from an industrial company were used as raw materials. All raw materials were stored at −18 °C for one week prior to production. The ingredients were used: 74% chicken meat, 9% chicken skin, 11% ice, 1.8% salt, 2% starch, 0.0125% sodium nitrite, 0.5% carrageenan, 0.3% phosphate mix, 0.05% sodium ascorbate, 0.3% sodium sitrate, 1.03% spice and 0.01% carmine. Considering this formulation, varying amounts of MDCM were substituted with chicken breast meat and added to the batch.
2.2. Bologna type sausage and frankfurters productions
Six treatments of bologna type sausages were formulated using different proportions (0% control, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%) of MDCM as a replacer for chicken breast meat. Same treatments were also formulated for frankfurters. Two batters were prepared for each treatment and each product. In order to produce the sausages, standard processing conditions were applied: chicken breast meat and/or MDCM were placed in the cutter and dry cuttering was made at slow speed for 30–60 s. After adding salt, nitrite and 2/3 of the ice in the formulation, the cutterring was continued until the temperature in the cutter reached 6–8°C. Then chicken skin and curing ingredients were added, and when the temperature reached 12°C, the remaining ice (1/3) and spice were added. The curing process was completed when the temperature reaches 9°C. The mixture was stuffed in a cellulose artificial casing (frankfurter: calibration 19 mm and weight 35 g; bologna type sausage: calibration 52 mm and weight 300 g) prior to cooking. The sausages were cooked in an oven at 100% steam at 85°C with an internal temperature of 72°C. After that, the sausages were immediately cooled with cold water to internal temperature to 25°C. Sausages were also packed under vacuum, and all samples were stored at 4°C until use. The production was carried out with two different raw materials and at two different times.
2.3. pH and aw
Ten grams of sample was homogenized with 100 mL distilled water using a Ultra-Turrax (IKA Werk T 25, Germany). Then, pH value was determined with a pH meter (Mettler-Toledo GmbH, Switzerland). The aw value was determined using the water activity device (Novasina TH-500 aw Sprint, Switzerland). The measurement was carried out at 25°C. Before use, the instrument was calibrated using six different concentrations of salt solution.
2.4. Determination of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) value
To determine the TBARS value of samples, the method specified by Lemon (Citation1975) was used. Briefly, 12 mL of 7.5% trichloroacetic acid solution was added on 2 g samples and homogenized with a Ultra Turrax (IKA Werk T 25, Germany). Then, the homogenate was filtered using Whatman no 1 filter paper, and 3 mL of filtrate was mixed with 3 mL of 0.02 M thiobarbituric acid solution. After that, the samples were placed in a boiling water bath for 40 min and they were cooled with tap water for 5 min. Then, they were centrifuged at 2000 g during 5 min. Finally, the absorbances were measured at 530 nm using a spectrophotometer (Thermo Electron Corporation, Aquamate, England), and the results were given as µmol MDA/kg.
2.5. Determination of instrumental color
The color of sausages was determined using Chroma Meter (CR-200 Konica Minolta, Osaka, Japan) with a D65 illuminant, an aperture size of 8 mm and standard observed of 2°. L*(lightness), a* (redness) and b*(yellowness) were measured on the cutting surface from three randomly chosen spots of three slices of bologna type sausage and frankfurtes. All measuremets were performed in triplicate.
2.6. Texture profile analysis
Texture profile analyses of bologna type sausage and frankfurters were performed on five replicates of each sample using a texture analyzer (CT3, Brookfield Engineering Lab, USA). Measurements were performed at an ambient temperature of approximately 22°C. The samples were cut into cylindrical portions (20 mm in length, 20 mm in diameter) and the textural properties of each sample were measured using a cylinder probe (diameter, 50 mm, TA 25/1000, Brookfield, USA). The test conditions were as follows: pre-test speed 1 mm/s, test speed and post-test speed 2 mm/s, between first and second compression 5 s, and compression ratio 50%. Data were collected and analyzed for hardness (N), adhesiveness, resilience, cohesiveness, springiness, gumminess (N), and chewiness (N) (Bourne, Citation1978).
2.7. Statistical analysis
The use of mechanically deboned chicken meat at different rates (control, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%) in both bologna type sausage and frankfurters productions was taken as a factor. The experiments were conducted according to the randomized complete block design with two replicates. The data were separately subjected to two-way ANOVA and the differences between the means were statistically evaluated using the Duncan’s multiple range test at the level of p < 0.05 (SPSS version 20, IBM, New York, USA). To determine the effects of MDCM level on texture profile properties, principal components analysis (PCA) was also performed using the Unscrambler software (Version 10.01, Camo Process AS., Oslo, Norway). The differential profile (cluster heat map) of the texture profile in bologna type sausage and frankfurters was analysed using heat mapper (Babicki et al., Citation2016).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. pH and aw
In the production of emulsified, comminuted meat products such as frankfurters, wieners, hot dogs, and bologna type sausages, the pH value of raw material is one of the most important for emulsification and attributes of final products (Thomsen & Zeuthen, Citation1988). The high pH value of mechanically separated meat provides an important advantage for the water holding capacity. Water holding capacity is a very important property related to juiciness and tenderness (Raphaelides et al., Citation1998; Viuda-Martos et al., Citation2012). In the study, the use of MDCM increased pH value of bologna type sausage, but 20% MDCM did not cause a significant change in pH value. Similarly, it was also reported that the use of 30% mechanically deboned poultry meat caused no change in the pH of the ready-to-eat restructured chicken breast product (Massingue et al., Citation2022).
MDCM had also a very significant effect on the pH value of frankfurters (p < 0.01). The pH values of frankfurters ranged from 6.26 to 6.51 and the pH value increased with increasing MDCM level in sausage batters (Table ). Similar result was detected in frankfurters by Pereira et al. (Citation2011). In our study, the highest and lowest mean pH values were found in frankfurter made only MDCM and control group, respectively. It was thought that the increase in the pH value of frankfurter was due to high pH values of MDCM. Indeed, the high pH value for MDCM was reported by Pereira et al. (Citation2011) and H. M. Mohamed and Mansour (Citation2012). It was also stated that the high pH value is caused by the incorporation of the bone marrow and protein denaturation during the mechanical deboning process (H. M. Mohamed & Mansour, Citation2012). On the other hand, in our study, the use of MDCM had no significant effect on aw values of bologna type sausages and frankfurters. Similar result, another study conducted on the use of different levels of MDCM (0, 50, 75 and 100%) in frankfurters, was reported (Pereira et al., Citation2011).
Table 1. pH, aw and TBARS values of bologna type and frankfurter type sausages produced using mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM)
3.2. Tbars
TBARS value, a measure of lipid oxidation, is an important quality criterion in meat and meat products. This phenomenon is influenced by many factors such as the degree of mincing of meat, temperature, pH, presence of heavy metals (H. M. Mohamed & Mansour, Citation2012). TBARS values of bologna type sausage and frankfurters are given in Table and are in the range from 5.77 to 8.50 and from 6.38 to 12.14 µmol MDA/kg, respectively. The use of MDCM on the TBARS value had a very significant effect (p < 0.01) in sausage samples. The use of MDCM increased the TBARS value of samples. In addition, TBARS value of frankfurters was higher than that of bologna type sausages. Due to its high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, MDPM is very susceptible to lipid oxidation. In addition, heme pigments are released during grinding, which lead to oxygen incorporation into the meat batter and thus accelerate the oxidation reactions (Paglarini et al., Citation2023). The high initial TBARS value is likely to have a negative impact on the shelf life of these products. In a study conducted on mortadella-type sausages produced using MDCM, it was reported that increasing the MDCM level could make the product more sensitive to lipid oxidation and that the TBARS value increases with increasing MDCM level in the samples stored at 4°C for 60 days (Cavalheiro et al., Citation2014). In our study, sausages containing 40% or more MDCM showed higher TBARS values than sausages with 0% and 20% MDCM. According to these results, lipid oxidation is a limiting factor in the acceptability of the sausages produced with MDCM. In sausages containing MDCM, minerals derived from the bone marrow have an important effect on lipid oxidation (Bigolin et al., Citation2013). On the other hand, mechanical process of removing meat from the bone leads to an increase in polyunsaturated fatty acids located primarily in the phospholipids and heme groups from bone marrow and to extreme mechanical stress (Mielnik et al., Citation2002; Püssa et al., Citation2008).
3.3. Color
Color is an important attribute for meat products including bologna type sausage and frankfurters. In the study, carmine was used as a colorant in all formulation. The use of MDCM up to 20% did not change L* and b* values of bologna type sausage. On the other hand, a* value was not affected by MDCM (Table ). In frankfurters, the highest mean L* value was observed in the control group. However, there were no significant differences in L* values between the sausages with MDCM. The lowest a* value was determined in control group, and no significant differences between the frankfurters containing MDCM were observed in a* value. According to these results, the use of MDCM up to 20% in the production of bologna type sausages causes changes in L* and b* values (Table ). On the other hand, L* value decreases and a* value increases even if 20% MDCM is used in the production of frankfurters. Similarly, Lee et al. (Citation2011) reported that adding MDCM decreases L* and b* values of frankfurter type sausages but increases a* value. Mechanical deboning generally releases heme and lipid components from the bone marrow and this can increase the level of hemoprotein pigments in MDPM depending on machine pressures used. The color of MDCM becomes both darker and reddish due to higher heme components (Shahidi et al., Citation1992).
Table 2. L*, a* and b* values of bologna type and frankfurter type sausages produced using mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM)
3.4. Texture profile
The mechanical separation process causes considerable cell breakdown and has a significant impact on the composition and structural properties of the meat (Froning, Citation1981). The results of TPA for bologna type sausages are given in Table . The parameters of hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, gumminess and chewiness in bologna type sausage were decreased by the use of MDCM. The samples containing 100% MDCM showed the lowest values in terms of textural parameters. However, no significant differences between samples with 80% and 100% MDCM were observed in terms of hardness, gumminess and chewiness. On the other hand, the use of MDCM increased the values for resilience and cohesiveness, and the lowest mean value was determined in control group. According to the results, there were no significant differences in springiness, gumminess and chewiness between control and sausage with 20% MDCM, however, the lower values for hardness and adhesiveness were observed in 20% MDCM compared to the control group. The decrease in hardness may be related to the emulsification ability of the formulation, which is indirectly affected by the decrease in protein content and the increase in moisture (Pereira et al., Citation2011; Savadkoohi et al., Citation2013).
Table 3. Texture profile analysis results of bologna type sausages produced using mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM)
While the use of MDCM did not affect the adhesiveness and springiness of frankfurters, it had an effect of p < 0.01 on the other parameters examined (Table ). The use of MDCM resulted in a decrease in the hardness value. However, the hardness values of the groups containing 60%, 80% and 100% MDCM did not differ statistically (p > 0.05). It was also reported by Lee et al. (Citation2011) that the use of MDCM in frankfurter type sausage decreases hardness. Similarly, in a study conducted on summer sausages, it was also determined that the use of 65% or more MDCM decreases the hardness value and causes a softer texture (Dhillon & Maurer, Citation1975). In this study, no change in the adhesiveness value was found depending on the MDCM content. The lowest resilience value was determined in the control group and did not differ statistically from the group containing 40 % MDCM. A similar situation was observed in cohesiveness values. Considering all the results, the use of 20% MDCM in sausage production did not lead to a significant change in the gumminess, chewiness, springiness, adhesiveness and cohesiveness values of the product, and to a significant decrease in the hardness value.
Table 4. Texture profile analysis results of frankfurter type sausages produced using mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM)
3.5. PCA
PCA was performed to evaluate the relationships between MDCM levels and texture profile properties of bologna type sausage and frankfurter. In both emulsion type sausages, the first PC is enough to explain 99% of the variation. The first two principal components explained 100% (99% for PC1 and 1% for PC2) of the total variance in both bologna type sausage (Figure ) and frankfurter (Figure ).
Figure 1. Correlation loadings of the relationships between the groups with MDCM and textural parameters in bologna type sausage.
Figure 2. Correlation loadings of the relationships between the groups with MDCM and textural parameters in frankfurter type sausage.
Both bologna type sausage and frankfurter groups containing 0%, 20% and 40% placed positive side of PC1, while the bologna type sausage (Figure ) and frankfurters (Figure ) with 60%, 80% and 100% of MDCM placed negative side of PC1. Hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, gumminess and chewiness for bologna type sausage located on positive side of PC1, while reslience and cohesiveness placed on the negative side of PC1 (Figure ). On the other hand, in frankfurter samples, the 0%, 20% and 40% MDCM showed a positive correlation with hardness, gumminess and chewiness in PC1, in contrast these groups were correlated negatively with adhesiveness, resilience and cohesiveness in PC1 (Figure ).
3.6. Heatmap
A cluster analysis based on textural properties in the groups was carried out to investigate the general differences among the groups. The heatmap colors were performed for high, middle and low expression levels. Figure showed the two main clusters, and the first cluster included only 0% and 20% MDCM groups. The second cluster was also divided into two groups, one containing 40% and 60% MDCM groups and the other 80% and 100% MDCM groups (Figure ).
Figure 3. Heat map of textural parameters in bologna type sausage produced different ratios of MDCM (H: hardness, A: adhesiveness, R: resilience, C: cohesiveness, S: springess, G: gumminess, CH: chewiness).
Figure showed the two main clusters. The cluster contained frankfurters was split into mainly two main clusters, and thus the group containing 100% MDCM was separated from the other groups. The group containing 0% MDCM and the group containing 20% MDCM were included in the same cluster. Frankfurter samples showed a different clustering than bologna type samples. However, 0% and 20% MDCM groups were in the same sub-cluster in both products (Figures ).
Figure 4. Heat map of textural parameters in frankfurter type sausage produced different ratios of MDCM (H: hardness, A: adhesiveness, R: resilience, C: cohesiveness, S: springess, G: gumminess, CH: chewiness).
4. Conclusions
The pH values of bologna type sausage and frankfurters increased with increasing MDCM content in the formulation. This result may adversely affect the shelf life of the product. However, there is a slight increase in the pH value at the 20% MDCM level. There is no significant change in the TBARS value at the 20% level compared to the samples without MDCM. The use of MDCM up to 20% ratio did not change L* value of bologna type sausage. However, the use of MDCM decreases the L * value of frankfurters independent MDCM usage rate. On the other hand, the use of 20% MDCM caused a decrease in the hardness value and an increase in the resilience value in bologna type sausage and frankfurters. The use of MDCM up to 20% does not cause any change in springiness, gumminess and chewiness of all groups. In PCA analysis, a closer relationship was also determined between the control group (0 %) and the 20 % group in terms of texturel properties.
In addition, the results of heatmap showed that the use of more than 20% ratio of MDCM was not possible in bologna type sausage. In frankfurters, although 0% MDCM ratio included in the main same cluster up to 80% MDCM ratio, it was observed that the increase in the MDCM rate of use in frankfurter sausages caused the difference in textural characteristics.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge Atatürk University East Anatolia High Technology Application and Research Center (DAYTAM, Erzurum, Türkiye) for laboratory support.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Additional information
Funding
Notes on contributors
Parinaz Bahrami
Parinaz Bahrami holds a Master's degree from the Institute of Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Atatürk University.
Gül Kotan Yilmaz
Dr. Gül Kotan Yılmaz works at the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of the Republic of Turkey.
Ahmet Akköse
Ahmet Akkose is an Associate Professor at the Department of Food Technology, Atatürk University.
Mükerrem Kaya
Mükerrem Kaya is a professor at the Department of Food Technology, Atatürk University.
Güzin Kaban
Güzin Kaban is a professor at the Department of Food Technology, Atatürk University.
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