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ABSTRACT
The development of cellulose-based materials is rapidly increasing due to their promising interest and being widely used in various applications such as food, industrial, pharmaceutical, paper, textile production, and wastewater treatment. Cellulose has several advantages including low cost, renewability, superior mechanical properties, and biodegradability. Nowadays, a novel cellulose-based material, which is known as all-cellulose composites (ACCs), has emerged, consisting of cellulose for both reinforcing and matrix phases. However, the hydrophilic characteristics of cellulose can lead to poor interfacial adhesion between reinforcing and matrix phases, affecting its mechanical properties, water absorption, water contact angle, and microstructural changes. Therefore, this review summarized the effect of alkyl ketene dimer (AKD) on the structural-properties relationship of cellulose-based materials. In this review, it was observed that the mechanical properties for cellulose-based materials varied with the use of AKD concentration in the range of 4–16 wt.%. A decrease in the water absorption was also identified in the range of 10–85%. The water contact angles were observed beyond 100° after AKD treatment. In addition, the possible reactions between AKD and cellulose structures are also discussed. It is envisaged that this review will help the development of potential hydrophobic ACCs in the future.
GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
Abbreviations
| ACCs | = | All-cellulose composites |
| AKD | = | Alkyl ketene dimer |
| CO2 | = | Carbon dioxide |
| SIP | = | Solvent infusion processing |
| NaOH | = | Sodium hydroxide |
| OH | = | Hydroxyl |
| FTIR | = | Fourier Transform Infrared |
| MCC | = | Microcrystalline cellulose |
| PP | = | Polypropylene |
| CNC | = | Cellulose nanocrystals |
| PVA | = | Polyvinyl alcohol |
| CNF | = | Cellulose nanofibers |
| PLA | = | Poly (Lactic acid) |
| LiCl | = | Lithium Chloride |
| DMAc | = | Dimethylacetamide |
| WPCs | = | Wood-plastic composites |
| NFC | = | Nanofibrillated cellulose |
| LDPE | = | Low density polyethylene |
| MFC | = | Microfibrillated cellulose |
| AUC | = | Alkali/urea regenerated cellulose |
| TOCNF | = | TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers |
| RG | = | Regenerated cellulose |
| CC | = | Calcium carbonate |
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to Advanced Material Processing & Design Research Group members for their technical assistance.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Additional information
Funding
Notes on contributors
Fatin Akilah Aziz
Miss Fatin Akilah is presently working as an engineer with Mediquip Company in Kangar, Perlis. She received her B.Eng in Manufacturing Engineering from Universiti Malaysia Perlis in 2022.
Mokhtar Mat Salleh
Dr. Mokhtar is presently a senior lecturer at Faculty of Mechanical Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP). He obtained his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering (University of Canterbury, New Zealand), M.Sc. in Manufacturing System Engineering (Coventry University, United Kingdom), and B.Eng. in Mechanical & Material (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor).