Moral Dilemmas in Military Situations: Proportionality Principle, Religiosity, Political Attitudes, and Authoritarian Personality

References

• Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
   Google Scholar
• Akrami, N., & Ekehammar, B. (2006). Right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation: Their roots in Big-Five personality factors and facets. Journal of Individual Differences, 27, 117–126. 10.1027/1614-0001.27.3.117
   Google Scholar
• Akrami, N., Ekehammar, B., & Araya, T. (2000). Classical and modern racial prejudice: A study of attitudes toward immigrants in Sweden. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 521–532. 10.1002/1099-0992(200007/08)30:4<521::AID-EJSP5>3.0.CO;2-N
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altemeyer, B. (1988). Enemies of freedom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Altemeyer, B. (1996). The authoritarian specter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Altemeyer, B. (1998). The other authoritarian personality. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 47–92). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Aquino, K., Freeman, D., Reed, A., II, Lim, V. K. G., & Felps, W. (2009). Testing a social-cognitive model of moral behavior: The interactive influence of situations and moral identity centrality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 123–141. 10.1037/a0015406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arbuckle, J. L. (2009). Amos 19. Crawfordville, FL: Amos Development Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Bartels, D. M. (2008). Principled moral sentiment and the flexibility of moral judgment and decision making. Cognition, 108, 381–417. 10.1016/j.cognition.2008.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauchamp, T. L. (2001). Philosophical ethics: An introduction to moral philosophy. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Brighouse, H., & Fleurbaey, M. (2010). Democracy and proportionality. Journal of Political Philosophy, 18, 137–155. 10.1111/j.1467-9760.2008.00316.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broeders, R., van den Bos, K., Müller, P. A., & Ham, J. (2011). Should I save or should I not kill? How people solve moral dilemmas depends on which rule is most accessible. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 923–934. ( Corrigendum published 2013, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, p. 1215) 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.03.018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks, T. (Ed.), (2012). Just war theory. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
   Google Scholar
• Canetti, D., Halperin, E., Hobfoll, S. E., Shapira, O., & Hirsch-Hoefler, S. (2009). Authoritarianism, perceived threat and exclusionism on the eve of the Disengagement: Evidence from Gaza. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33, 463–474. 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.12.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canetti, D., Hirsch-Hoefler, S., & Eiran, E. (2014). Suffer the children: The psychology of the Israel-Palestinian conflict. Foreign Affairs. Retrieved from http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/142177/daphna-canetti-sivan-hirsch-hoefler-and-ehud-eiran/suffer-the-children
   Google Scholar
• Canetti-Nisim, D. (2004). The effect of religiosity on endorsement of democratic values: The mediating influence of authoritarianism. Political Behavior, 26, 377–398. 10.1007/s11109-004-0901-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canetti-Nisim, D., Halperin, E., Sharvit, K., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2009). A new stress-based model of political extremism: Personal exposure to terrorism, psychological distress, and exclusionist political attitudes. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 53, 363–389. 10.1177/0022002709333296
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canetti-Nisim, D., & Pedahzur, A. (2003). Contributory factors to political xenophobia in a multi-cultural society: The case of Israel. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 307–333. 10.1016/S0147-1767(03)00014-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong, D., & Marshall, A. (1999). When morality and economics collide (or not) in a Texas community. Political Behavior, 21, 91–121. 10.1023/A:1022092015871
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dandoy, A. C., & Goldstein, A. G. (1990). The use of cognitive appraisal to reduce stress reactions: A replication. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 5, 275–285.
   Google Scholar
• Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., & Sweitzer, V. L. (2008). Moral disengagement in ethical decision making: A study of antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 374–391. 10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duriez, B., Luyten, P., Snauwaert, B., & Hutsebaut, D. (2002). The importance of religiosity and values in predicting political attitudes: Evidence for the continuing importance of religiosity in Flanders (Belgium). Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 5, 35–54. 10.1080/13674670110066831
   Google Scholar
• Ekehammar, B., Akrami, N., Gylje, M., & Zakrisson, I. (2004). What matters most to prejudice: Big five personality, social dominance orientation, or right-wing authoritarianism? European Journal of Personality, 18, 463–482. 10.1002/per.526
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emler, N., & Stace, K. (1999). What does principled versus conventional moral reasoning convey to others about the politics and psychology of the reasoner? European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 455–468. 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199906)29:4<455::AID-EJSP937>3.0.CO;2-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman, S. (2003). Enforcing social conformity. Political Psychology, 24, 41–74. 10.1111/0162-895X.00316
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Gruen, R. J., & DeLongis, A. (1986). Appraisal, coping, health status, and psychological symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 571–579. 10.1037/0022-3514.50.3.571
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, J., & Haidt, J. (2002). How (and where) does moral judgment work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 517–523. 10.1016/S1364-6613(02)02011-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108, 814–834. 10.1037/0033-295X.108.4.814
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halperin, E., Canetti, D., Hobfoll, S. E., & Johnson, R. J. (2009). Terror, resource gains and exclusionist political attitudes among new immigrants and veteran Israelis. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 35, 997–1014. 10.1080/13691830902957759
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Handcock, M. S., & Gile, K. J. (2011). On the concept of snowball sampling. Retrieved from http://arxiv.org/pdf/1108.0301.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Hurka, T. (2005). Proportionality in the morality of war. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 33, 34–66. 10.1111/j.1088-4963.2005.00024.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Israel Defense Forces. (2012). IDF ethics. Retrieved from http://dover.idf.il/IDF/English/about/doctrine/ethics.htm
   Google Scholar
• James, W. (1958). The varieties of religious experience. New York, NY: New American Library. ( Original work published 1902)
   Google Scholar
• Jost, J. T., Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A. W., & Sulloway, F. J. (2003). Political conservatism as motivated social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 339–375. 10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamm, F. M. (2005). Terror and collateral damage: Are they permissible? The Journal of Ethics, 9, 381–401. 10.1007/s10892-005-3515-z
   Google Scholar
• Kasher, A., & Yadlin, A. (2005). Military ethics of fighting terror: An Israeli perspective. Journal of Military Ethics, 4, 3–32. 10.1080/15027570510014642
   Google Scholar
• Kimhi, S. (2014). Moral dilemma in the war against terror: Political attitudes and regular versus reserve military service. Ethics & Behavior, 24, 1–15. 10.1080/10508422.2013.818919
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimhi, S., Eshel, Y., Zysberg, L., & Hantman, S. (2009). Getting a life: Gender differences in postwar recovery. Sex Roles, 61, 554–565. 10.1007/s11199-009-9660-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimhi, S., & Even, S. (2004). Who are the Palestinian suicide bombers? Terrorism and Political Violence, 16, 815–840. 10.1080/095465590899740
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimhi, S., & Sagy, S. (2008). Moral justification and feelings of adjustment to military law-enforcement situation: The case of Israeli soldiers serving at army roadblocks. Mind & Society, 7, 177–191. 10.1007/s11299-008-0051-0
   Google Scholar
• Lammers, J., & Stapel, D. A. (2009). How power influences moral thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 279–289. 10.1037/a0015437
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Martin, J. L. (2001). The authoritarian personality, 50 years later: What lessons are there for political psychology? Political Psychology, 22, 1–26. 10.1111/0162-895X.00223
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• May, L. (2008). War crimes and just war. Journal of Military Ethics, 7, 317–319. 10.1080/15027570802510197
   Google Scholar
• Mazar, N., Amir, O., & Ariely, D. (2008). The dishonesty of honest people: A theory of self-concept maintenance. Journal of Marketing Research, 45, 633–644. 10.1509/jmkr.45.6.633
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCann, S. J. H. (2008). Societal threat, authoritarianism, conservatism, and U.S. state death penalty sentencing (1977–2004). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 913–923. 10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.913
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland, S. G. (2000). Authoritarianism and the development of democratic consciousness in Russia. In S. C. Rippl, C. Seipl, & A. Kindervater (Eds.), Controversies and approaches in authoritarianism research today (pp. 173–197). Opladen, Germany: Leske Bundrich.
   Google Scholar
• Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.terrorism-info.org.il
   Google Scholar
• Qualtrics. (2013). Qualtrics, Provo, UT [ Software website]. Retrieved from http://www.qualtrics.com
   Google Scholar
• Reynolds, S. J., & Ceranic, T. L. (2009). On the causes and conditions of moral behavior: Why is this all we know? In D. D. Cremer (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on ethical behavior and decision making (pp. 17–33). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Rubinstein, G. (2003). Authoritarianism and its relation to creativity: A comparative study among students of design, behavioral sciences and law. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 695–705. 10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00055-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoenekase, D. P. (2004). Targeting decisions regarding human shields. Military Review, 84, 26–31.
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz, S. H., & Huismans, S. (1995). Value priorities and religiosity in four Western religions. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58, 88–107. 10.2307/2787148
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seiler, S., Fischer, A., & Ooi, Y. P. (2010). An interactional dual-process model of moral decision making to guide military training. Military Psychology, 22, 490–509. 10.1080/08995605.2010.513270
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro, J. P., & Gross, S. J. (2013). Ethical educational leadership in turbulent times (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Shenhav, A., & Greene, J. D. (2010). Moral judgments recruit domain-general valuation mechanisms to integrate representations of probability and magnitude. Neuron, 67, 667–677. 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.07.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445. 10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solis, G. D. (2010). The law of armed conflict: International humanitarian law in war. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511757839
   Google Scholar
• Starcke, K., Polzer, C., Wolf, O. T., & Brand, M. (2011). Does stress alter everyday moral decision-making? Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36, 210–219. 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.07.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan, J. L., & Transue, J. E. (1999). The psychological underpinnings of democracy: A selective review of research on political tolerance, interpersonal trust, and social capital. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 625–650. 10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.625
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valdesolo, P., & DeSteno, D. (2006). Manipulations of emotional context shape moral judgment. Psychological Science, 17, 476–477. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01731.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wald, K. D., & Martinez, M. D. (2001). Jewish religiosity and political attitudes in the United States and Israel. Political Behavior, 23, 377–397. 10.1023/A:1015465523437
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, L. J., & Frimer, J. A. (2007). Moral personality of brave and caring exemplars. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 845–860. 10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.845
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar