References
- Adams, Thomas K. 1999. ‘The new mercenaries and the privatization of conflict’. Parameters 29(21) 103–116. <https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=484689>.
- Adebajo, Adekeye. 2004. ‘Pax West Africana? Regional security mechanisms’. In West Africa’s Security Challenges: Building Peace in A Troubled Region, edited by Adekeye Adebajo and Ismail Rashid, 291-317. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner.
- Akcinaroglu, Seden, and Elizabeth Radziszewski. 2012. ‘Private military companies, opportunities, and termination of civil wars in Africa’. Journal of Conflict Resolution 57(5) 795–821. doi:10.1177/0022002712449325.
- Amao, Olumuyiwa Babatunde, and Benjamin Maiangwa. 2017. ‘Has the Giant gone to sleep? Re-assessing Nigeria’s response to the Liberian Civil War (1990-1997) and the Boko Haram insurgency (2009-2015)’. African Studies 76(1) 22–43. doi:10.1080/00020184.2017.1285665.
- Aning, Emmanuel Kwesi. 2000. ‘Towards the new millennium: ECOWAS’s evolving conflict management system’. African Security Review 9(5–6) 50–63. doi:10.1080/10246029.2000.9628081.
- Aning, Emmanuel Kwesi. 2004. ‘Investing in peace and security in Africa: The case of ECOWAS’. Conflict, Security & Development 4(3) 533–542. doi:10.1080/1467880042000320050.
- Arnold, Guy. 1999. Mercenaries. The Scourge of The Third World. London: Macmillan Press.
- Atkinson, Giles, and Kirk Hamilton. 2003. ‘Savings, growth and the resource curse hypothesis’. World Development 31(11) 1793–1807. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2003.05.001.
- Avant, Deborah. 2004. ‘The privatization of security and change in the control of force’. International Studies Perspectives 5(2) 153–157. doi:10.1111/j.1528-3577.2004.00165.x.
- Bappah, Habibu Yaya. 2016. ‘Nigeria’s military failure against the Boko Haram insurgency’. African Security Review 25(2) 146–158. doi:10.1080/10246029.2016.1151799.
- Barlow, Eeben. 2018. ‘The rise, fall, and rise again of Boko Haram’. Business a.m., November 28. <https://www.businessamlive.com/the-rise-fall-and-rise-again-of-boko-haram/>.
- Bisbjerg Nielsen, Loke. 2016. ‘Private military companies in Africa – The case of STTEP in Nigeria’. Journal of World Development Studies 2(2).
- Brayton, Steven. 2002. ‘Outsourcing war: Mercenaries and the privatization of peacekeeping’. Journal of International Affairs 55(2) 303–329. <www.jstor.org/stable/24358173>.
- Brooks, Doug. 2000a. ‘Write a cheque, end a war: Using private military Companies to end African conflicts’. Conflict Trends 1(6) 33–35.
- Brooks, Doug. 2000b. ‘Messiahs or mercenaries? The future of international private military services’. International Peacekeeping 7(4) 129–144. doi:10.1080/13533310008413867.
- Campbell, John. 2015. ‘Nigeria rehires South African mercenaries?’. Council on Foreign Relations, 23 October. <https://www.cfr.org/blog/nigeria-rehires-south-african-mercenaries>.
- Campbell, John, and Asch Harwood. 2018. ‘Boko Haram’s deadly impact’. Council on Foreign Relations, 20 August. <https://www.cfr.org/article/boko-harams-deadly-impact>.
- Carbone, Giovanni. 2005. L’Africa. Gli stati, la politica, i conflitti. [Africa. States, Politics and Conflicts] Bologna: il Mulino.
- Chatterjee, Pratap. 1997. ‘Mercenary armies and mineral wealth’. Covert Action Quarterly 62 22–37.
- Clapham, Christopher. 1996. Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Clynes, Tom. 2002. ‘They Shoot Poachers, Don’t They?’. National Geographic Adventure Magazine October.
- Cole, Matthew, and Jeremy Scahill. 2016. ‘Erik Prince in the hot seat’. The Intercept, 24 March <https://theintercept.com/2016/03/24/blackwater-founder-erik-prince-under-federal-investigation/>.
- Comolli, Virginia. 2015. ‘The regional problem of Boko Haram’. Survival 57(4) 109–117. doi:10.1080/00396338.2015.1068560.
- Cropley, Ed, and David Lewis. 2015. ‘Nigeria drafts in foreign mercenaries to take on Boko Haram’. Reuters, 12 March. <http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-nigeria-violence-mercenaries-idUKKBN0M80VT20150312>.
- Deckard, Natalie Delia, and Zacharias Pieri. 2017. ‘The implications of endemic corruption for state legitimacy in developing nations: An empirical exploration of the Nigerian case’. International Journal of Politics Culture and Society 30(4) 369–384. doi:10.1007/s10767-016-9242-6.
- Dorney, S. 1998. The Sandline Affair: Politics and Mercenaries and the Bougainville Crisis. Sydney: ABC Books.
- Ero, Comfort. 2000. ‘ECOMOG: A model for Africa?’ In Building Stability in Africa: Challenges for the New Millennium, edited by Jakkie Cilliers and Annika Hilding-Norberg. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies.
- Ewi, Martin. 2015. ‘Was the Nigerian 2015 presidential election a victory for Boko Haram or for democracy?’. African Security Review 24(2) 207–231. doi:10.1080/10246029.2015.1051824.
- Fasakin, Akinbode. 2017. ‘Leadership and national security: An interrogation of the Boko Haram violence in Nigeria’. African Security Review 26(1) 87–108. doi:10.1080/10246029.2016.1269656.
- Francis, David J. 1999. ‘Mercenary intervention in Sierra Leone: Providing national security or international exploitation?’. Third World Quarterly 20(2) 319–336. doi:10.1080/01436599913785.
- Freeman, Colin. 2015. ‘South African mercenaries’ secret war on Boko Haram’. The Telegraph, 10 May. <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/nigeria/11596210/South-African-mercenaries-secret-war-on-Boko-Haram.html>.
- Gberie, Lansana. 2003. ‘ECOMOG: the story of an heroic failure’. African Affairs 102(406) 147–154. doi:10.1093/afraf/adg010 doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a138817
- Goulet, Yves. 1998. ‘MPRI: Washington’s freelance advisors’. Jane’s Intelligence Review 38–44.
- Harding, Jeremy. 1997. ‘The mercenary business: “Executive Outcomes”‘. Review of African Political Economy 24(71) 87–97. doi:10.1080/03056249708704240.
- Harvey, David. 2007. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Hodges, Tony. 2001. Angola: From Afro-Stalinism to Petro-diamond Capitalism. Oxford: James Currey.
- Howe, Herbert M. 1998. ‘Private security forces and African stability: The case of Executive Outcomes’. The Journal of Modern African Studies 36(2) 307–331. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/161407>. doi: 10.1017/S0022278X98002778
- Isenberg, Davis. 1997. Soldier of Fortune Ltd.: A Profile of Today’s Private Sector Corporate Mercenary Firm. Washington DC: Centre for Defence Information.
- Iyekekpolo, Wisdom Oghosa. 2016. ‘Boko Haram: Understanding the context’. Third World Quarterly 37(12) 2211–2228. doi:10.1080/01436597.2016.1177453.
- Kaldor, Mary. 1999. New & Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
- Kent, Vanessa, and Mark Malan. 2003. ‘The African Stand-by Force: Progress and prospects’. African Security Review 12(3) 71–81. doi:10.1080/10246029.2003.9627237.
- Leander, Anna. 2005. ‘The market for force and public security: The destabilizing consequences of private military companies’. Journal of Peace Research 42(5) 602–622. doi:10.1177/0022343305056237.
- ‘Leash the dogs of war: South Africa struggles in vain to ban soldiers of fortune’. 2015. The Economist, 19 March. <https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21646809-south-africa-struggles-vain-ban-soldiers-fortune-leash-dogs-war>.
- Lister, Tim, and Sebastian Shukla. 2019. ‘Russian mercenaries fight shadowy battle in gas-rich Mozambique’. CNN, 29 November. <https://edition.cnn.com/2019/11/29/africa/russian-mercenaries-mozambique-intl/index.html>.
- Lock, Peter. 1999. ‘Africa, military downsizing and the growth of security industry’. In Peace, Profit or Plunder? The Privatisation of Security in War-Torn Africa, edited by Jakkie Cilliers and Peggy Mason, 11–36. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies.
- Mandel, Robert. 2001. Armies Without States: The Privatization of Security. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner.
- Mann, Michael. 1990. States, War and Capitalism. Oxford: Blackwell.
- Mazure, Laurence. 1996. ‘Lucrative reconversion des mercenaires sud-africaines’. [Lucrative reconversion of South African mercenaries]. Le Monde-diplomatique, October, 22–23.
- Mills, Greg, and John Stremlau. 1999. The Privatization of Security in Africa, Pretoria: South African Institute of International Affairs.
- Mockler, Anthony. 1969. The Mercenaries. London: Macmillan.
- Moore, Mick. 2001. ‘Political underdevelopment: What causes ‘bad governance’. Public Management Review 3(3) 385–418. doi:10.1080/14616670110050020.
- Morton, Louis, and James Alden Barber. 1973. ‘The military and American society’. Reviews in American History 1(1) 53–59. doi:10.2307/2701684.
- Musah, Abdel-Fatau, and J ‘Kayode Fayemi (eds). 2000. Mercenaries: An African Security Dilemma. London: Pluto Press.
- Neethling, Theo. 2020. ‘Why South Africa has a keen interest in extremist violence in northern Mozambique’. The Conversation, 22 June. <https://theconversation.com/why-south-africa-has-a-keen-interest-in-extremist-violence-in-northern-mozambique-140745?fbclid=IwAR1twGL496g1yCfxujCezmpHM7tjAP61ZaTNwTf54b6mg8S_4chG3cEV7VY>.
- ‘Nigeria: Ongoing offensive sees results’. 2015. Africa Research Bulletin 52(3) 20505B–20509A. doi:10.1111/j.1467-825X.2015.06221.x.
- Noakes, Andrew. 2014. ‘Nigeria is losing this war: Here’s how to win the fight against Boko Haram’. African Arguments, 7 April. <https://africanarguments.org/2014/04/07/nigeria-is-losing-this-war-heres-how-to-win-the-fight-against-boko-haram-by-andrew-noakes>.
- Norton-Taylor, Richard. 2002. ‘Let mercenaries be licensed, says Foreign Office’. The Guardian, 13 February. <https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2002/feb/13/uk.foreignpolicy>.
- Nossiter, Adam. 2015. ‘Mercenaries join Nigeria’s military campaign against Boko Haram’. The New York Times, 12 March. <https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/world/africa/nigerias-fight-against-boko-haram-gets-help-from-south-african-mercenaries.html>.
- O’Brien, Kevin A. 1998. ‘Military-advisory groups and African security: Privatized peacekeeping?’ International Peacekeeping 5(3) 78–105. doi:10.1080/13533319808413732.
- O’Grady, Siobhán, and Elias Groll. 2015. ‘Nigeria taps South African mercenaries in fight against Boko Haram’. Foreign Policy, 12 March. <http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/03/12/nigeria-taps-south-african-mercenaries-in-fight-against-boko-haram>.
- Olonisakin, Funmi. 2000. ‘Arresting the tide of mercenaries: Prospects for regional control’. In Mercenaries: An African Security Dilemma, edited by Abdel-Fatau Musah and J ‘Kayode Fayemi, 233–256. London: Pluto Press.
- Onapajo, Hakeem, and Ufo Okeke-Uzodike. 2012. ‘Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria: Man, the state, and the international system’. African Security Review 21(3) 24–39. doi:10.1080/10246029.2012.687693.
- Onuoha, Freedom C. 2010. ‘The Islamist challenge: Nigeria’s Boko Haram crisis explained’. African Security Review 19(2), 54–67. doi:10.1080/10246029.2010.503061.
- Otoghile, Aiguosatile, and Afeaye A. Igbafe. 2014. ‘Colonial construction and Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria: Relating the present to the past’. Public Policy and Administration Research 4(12) 96–106. <https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/PPAR/article/view/18421>.
- Pech, Khareen, and Yusuf Hassan. 1997. ‘Sierra Leone’s Faustian bargain’. Mail&Guardian, 20 May. <https://mg.co.za/article/1997-05-30-sierra-leones-faustian-bargain>.
- Percy, Sarah. 2007. Mercenaries: The History of a Norm in International Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Petersohn, Ulrich. 2015. ‘The social structure of the market for force’. Cooperation and Conflict 50(2) 269–285. doi:10.1177/0010836714545686.
- Popovski, Vesselin, and Benjamin Maiangwa. 2016. ‘Boko Haram’s attacks and the people’s response: A ‘fourth pillar’ of the responsibility to protect?’. African Security Review 25(2) 159–175. doi:10.1080/10246029.2016.1152987.
- Reno, William. 2007. ‘Patronage politics and the behavior of armed groups’. Civil Wars 9(4). 324–342. doi:10.1080/13698240701699409.
- Renou, Xavier, Philippe Chapleau, Wayne Madsen, and François-Xavier Verschave. 2005. La Privatisation de la Violence: Mercenaires & Sociétés Militaires Privées au Service du Marché. [The Privatization of Violence. Mercenaries & Private Military Companies Serving the Market] Marseille: Agone.
- Roberts, Adam. 2006. The Wonga Coup: Guns, Thugs, and a Ruthless Determination to Create Mayhem in an Oil-Rich Corner of Africa. London: Profile Books.
- Shearer, David. 1998a. ‘Private armies and military intervention’. Adelphi Paper 38(316) 39–63. doi:10.1080/05679329808449482 doi: 10.1080/05679329808449479
- Shearer, David. 1998b. ‘Outsourcing war’. Foreign Policy 112 68–81. doi:10.2307/1149036.
- Silverstein, Ken. 2000. Private Warriors. London: Verso.
- Singer, Peter W. 2003. Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
- Solomon, Hussein. 2017. ‘Beyond the state: Reconceptualising African security in the 21st century’. African Security Review 26(1) 62–76. doi:10.1080/10246029.2016.1264986.
- Spearin, Christopher. 2001. ‘Private security companies and humanitarians: A corporate solution to securing humanitarian spaces?’ International Peacekeeping 8(1) 20-43. doi:10.1080/13533310108413877.
- Spearin, Christopher. 2011. ‘UN peacekeeping and the international private military and security industry’. International Peacekeeping 18(2) 196–209. doi:10.1080/13533312.2010.546099.
- Streeten, Paul. 1993. ‘The special problems of small countries’. World Development 21(2) 197–202. doi:10.1016/0305-750X(93)90014-Z.
- Tonwe, Daniel A., and Surulola J. Eke. 2013. ‘State fragility and violent uprisings in Nigeria: The case of Boko Haram’. African Security Review 22(4) 232–243. doi:10.1080/10246029.2013.838794.
- Van Creveld, Martin. 1991. The Transformation of War. New York: Free Press.
- Varin, Caroline. 2015. ‘Why Nigeria is turning to South African mercenaries to help fight Boko Haram’. The Conversation, 20 March. <http://theconversation.com/why-nigeria-is-turning-to-south-african-mercenaries-to-help-fight-boko-haram-38948>.
- Varin, Caroline. 2016. Boko Haram and War on Terror. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger.
- Vines, Alex. 2000. ‘Mercenaries, human rights and legality’. In Mercenaries: An African Security Dilemma, edited by Abdel-Fatau Musah and J ‘Kayode Fayemi, 169–197. London: Pluto Press.
- Young, Crawford. 1994. The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
- Zabyelina, Yuliya, and Irina Kustova. 2015. ‘Energy and conflict: Security outsourcing in the protection of critical energy infrastructures’. Cooperation and Conflict 50(4) 531–549. doi:10.1177/0010836714558640.
- Zenn, Jacob, Atta Barkindo, and Nicholas A. Heras. 2013. ‘The ideological evolution of Boko Haram in Nigeria’. The RUSI Journal 158(4) 46–53. doi:10.1080/03071847.2013.826506.