- Thorpe , T.E. 1902 . Essays in Historical Chemistry , 79 – 122 . London : Macmillan .
- Partington , J.R. 1962 . A History of Chemistry, 4 vols , 344 – 62 . London : Macmillan . HI
- Edelstein , Sidney . 1948 . 'Priestley Settles the Water Controversy' . Chymia , 1 : 123 – 37 .
- Schofield , Robert . 1964 . 'Still More on the Water Controversy' . Chymia , 9 : 71 – 76 .
- Jungnickel , Christa and McCormmach , Russell . 1996 . Cavendish: The Experimental Life , 272 Philadelphia, PA : American Philosophical Society . The second, revised, edition of this work (Bucknell, 1999) retains the emphasis on nationalism but not these precise words (p. 380)
- Sapp , Jan . 1990 . Where the Truth lies: Franz Moewus and the Origins of Molecular Biology , 1 – 26 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . See the case of the discovery of Neptune as discussed in Barry Bames (note S), pp. 94-98. On a kindred analysis of the concept of 'fraud' see, For all its sophistication on these issues Gross (note 5) seems to constantly veer towards attempts to define criteria himself that can only be defined by the actors. Gross realizes the problem with this (note 5, p. 169) but does not quite make the realization central to his case
- Woolgar , Steve . 1976 . 'Writing an Intellectual History of Scientific Development The Use of Discovery Accounts' . Social Studies of Science , 6 : 395 – 422 . The alternative to historical explanation is simply to be content with the articulation of how discovery accounts are accomplished. For the classic locus of this tradition see
- Gilbert , G. Nigel and Mulkay , Michael . 1984 . Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociological Analysis of Scientists' Discourse , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . For a critique of this approach, and of its pseudo-empiricism in particular, see
- Shapin , Steven . 1984 . Talking History' . Isis , 75 : 125 – 30 .
- Gough , J.B. 1983 . 'Lavoisier's Memoirs on the Nature of Water and their Place in the Chemical Revolution' . Ambix , 30 : 89 – 106 .
- Donovan , Arthur , ed. 1988 . The Chemical Revolution: Essays in Reinterpretation Vol. 4 , 5 – 231 . Osiris
- Schaffer , Simon . 1990 . “ 'Measuring Virtue: Eudiometry, Enlightenment and Pneumatic Medicine' ” . In The Medical Enlightenment of the Eighteenth Century Edited by: Cunningham , Andrew and French , Roger . 281 – 318 . Cambridge Indeed the objectives can be seen to lie in other directions altogether, for example in pneumatic medicine. See
- Cavendish , Henry . 1784 . 'Experiments on Air' . Philosophical Transactions , 74 : 119 – 69 . 119
- Priestley , Joseph . 1781 . Experiments and Observations Relating to Various Branches of Natural Philosophy 395 – 98 . London H
- Lavoisier , Antoine and Meusnier , J.-B. 1784 . 'Mémoire où l'on Prouve par la Décomposition de l'eau que ce Fluide n'est Point une Substance Simple' . Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences pour , 1781 : 269 – 83 . This paper was read to the Académie on 21 April 1784
- Watt , James . 1784 . Thoughts on the Constituent Parts of Water' . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , 74 : 329 – 53 . Henry Cavendish (note 10)
- Muirhead , J. P. , ed. 1846 . Correspondence of the late James Watt on his Discovery of the Theory of the Composition of Water , 36 – 38 . London : Murray . James Watt to Richard Kirwan, 1 December 1783 in
- Tunbridge , Paul A. 1971 . 'Jean André DeLuc' . Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London , 26 : 15 – 33 . On De Luc see
- Brougham , Henry . 1839 . “ 'Historical Account of the Discovery of the Composition of Water' ” . In Life of James Watt 13142 Edinburgh It was later to be charged that Blagden introduced various interpolations into Cavendish's paper as published in the Philosophical Transactions, which had the tendency to make Cavendish's claim to priority look stronger than it was. The first interpolation made by Blagden states that Cavendish made most of his experiments in the northern summer of 1781 and that he had communicated them to Priestley. The second interpolation mentions Blagden having discussed Cavendish's work with Lavoisier on his visit to Paris. The third interpolation, made by Cavendish, compares his theory with Watt's and disagrees with Watt on the role of heat in the composition of water. See, subjoined to D.F.J. Arago
- McCormmach , Russell . 1990 . “ 'Henry Cavendish on the Proper Method of Rectifying Abuses' ” . In Beyond History of Science. Essays in Honor of Robert E. Schofield Edited by: Garber , Elizabeth . 35 – 51 . Bethlehem On the 1784 dissensions and Cavendish's role in them see
- Heilbron , John L. 1993 . “ Mathematicians' Mutiny With Morals' ” . In World Changes: Thomas Kühn aid the Nature of Science Edited by: Norwich , Paul . Cambridge On the lasting effects of these dissensions see
- Miller , David Philip . 1983 . '"Between Hostile Camps": Sir Humphry Davy's Presidency of the Royal Society, 1820-1827' . British Journal for the History of Science , 16 : 1 – 47 . 10 – 13 . Watt's subsequent election as FRS and his friendly dealings with Banks in relation to other ventures certainly patched up the relationship to some extent. However, simmering jealousies remained close below the surface
- Arago , D.F.J. 1839 . Historical Eloge of James Watt. Translated from the French with Additional Notes and an Appendix by James Patrick Muirhead , London : Murray .
- Murray , John . 1806 . A System of Chemistry 4 vols , 158 Edinburgh H
- Nicholson , William . 1795 . A Dictionary of Chemistry 2 vols , 1019 – 20 . n
- Thomson , Thomas . 1804 . A System of Chemistry, , 2nd edn 4 vols , 577 Edinburgh I
- Turner , Edward . 1837 . Elements of Chemistry, , 6th edition 253 – 54 . London
- Aikin , Charles R. 1807-14 . A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy 3 vols , 472 London H
- Graham , Thomas . 1842 . Elements of Chemistry 1842 , 261 London
- Parkes , Samuel . 1806 . A Chemical Catechism for the Use of Young People 133 London
- Brewster , David . 1846 . 'Watt and Cavendish: Controversy Respecting the Composition of Water' . North British Review , 6 : 473 – 508 . 475 – 76 . The ways in which Watt's claim was kept alive by his most immediate supporters are described in
- Robinson , Eric and McKie , Douglas , eds. 1970 . Letters of James Watt and Joseph Black , 345 Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press . However, it is easy, perhaps, to overestimate sensitivity about the water controversy during these years. In 1800 John Robison was editing Black's lectures and informed Watt, apparently without concern or contradiction, that the lectures included a description of Cavendish's discovery of the composition of water. See Partners in Science
- Morrell , Jack and Thackray , Arnold , eds. 1981 . Gentlemen of Science: Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , 375 Oxford : Clarendon Press . On Arago and the British Association see, Arago's contact with James Watt Jr during his visit to Britain in 1834 can be followed in correspondence between Watt, Arago and J.B. Pentland who acted as an intermediary between them. See James Watt Papers (Doldowlod Papers), Birmingham Central Library, W/10 and W/12
- Cawood , John . 1985 . 'François Arago, Homme de Science et Homme Politique9 . La Recherche , 16 : 1464 – 71 . 1469 On thé éloges of Arago see
- Crosland , Maurice . 1992 . Science under Control: The French Academy of Sciences 1795-1914 , 360 – 61 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Outram , Dorinda . 1978 . The Language of Natural Power: The Funeral Eloges of George Cuvier' . History of Science , 16 : 153 – 78 . and on those of Cuvier see, Translation of quotation: 'During the period when he held the position of perpetual secretary and deputy, Arago's efforts to show the social function of science took three essential forms. In his writings and his speeches at the Academy and at the Chamber of Deputies, from the first, he developed a general system of ideas on the role of science in social progress. Secondly, he argued that industrial development profits from the application of technology. He preoccupied himself, finally, with social, educational and political problems posed by industrial development At the Academy he often put forward these ideas in the éloges, short biographies of distinguished men of science, which Arago transformed into general declarations on the function of science.'
- Daumas , Maurice . 1987 . “ Arago 1786-1853 ” . In La Jeunesse de la Science , 191 Paris : Belin . Translation: This passage unleashed upon Arago and Lord Brougham warnings from the Royal Society of London. The first scientist who had discovered the composition of water was Cavendish and not Watt. Arago and his English informant were called upon to retract. In France people accused them of inclining towards Watt because of his origins. Watt, compared with Cavendish, symbolized the inventive genius of the workingman opposed to the culture of the old nobility.'
- Arago , D.F.J. 1839 . Life of James Watt 131 – 42 . Edinburgh See Muirhead (note 15), pp. xxxvii-xxxix. Brougham's chief written contributions to the water controversy itself were 'Historical Account of the Discovery of the Composition of Water', subjoined to, and Lives of Men of Letters and Science, who Flourished in the Time of George III (London, 1845), pp. 352-401 (on Watt) and pp. 429-47 (on Cavendish)
- Peacock , George . 1845 . 'Arago and Brougham on Black, Cavendish, Priestley and Watt' . Quarterly Review , 77 : 105 – 39 . 'Address by the Rev. W. Vemon Harcourt' Report of the Ninth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held at Birmingham in August 1839 (London, 1840), pp. 3-69. Importantly, Harcourt, Whewell and Peacock regarded Harcourt's work as exhibiting sound historical practice compared with the slipshod efforts of Arago and Brougham. For a forceful statement of this position see
- Davy , John . 1839 . M.D. F.R.S. , 9 vols , 127 – 28 . London : Smith, Elder & Co. . Ibid., p. 7. Humphry Davy, The Collected Works of Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. LLD. F.R.S. Edited by his Brother, VH, Davy's own views on the discovery of the composition of water, as expressed in 1806, and John Davy's commentary thereon, are set out on pp. 130-39. As seen below (and note 69), Watt Jr claimed that Humphry Davy changed his mind on seeing the relevant private correspondence
- Wilson , George . 1845 . 'Lives of Men of Letters and Science who Flourished in the Time of George III by Henry, Lord Brougham' . British Quarterly Review , 2 : 197 – 263 . 245 – 46 . Ibid., p. 8. George Wilson, the other chief writer for Cavendish, makes a very similar point: 'It is not easy to convey to the general reader, a just conception of the importance which men of science attach to the discovery of the composition of water. It is not merely that a body reputed from the earliest ages an element, has been shown to consist of two altogether dissimilar invisible gases. Hydrogen represents in its properties and relations all the metals and metallic substances in nature: oxygen all the non-metallic ones. Water, which is the union of the two, typifies the constitution of every compound body. All the refined and subtle speculations of the present day concerning the composition of complex substances, are but expansions of the idea which Cavendish's exposition of the nature of water first made familiar to men.'
- Merton , Robert K. , ed. 1973 . “ 'Priorities in Scientific Discovery' ” . In The Sociology of Science. Theoretical and Empirical Investigations , 286 – 324 . Chicago, IL : University of Chicago Press . Address' (note 37), p. 15. The implied contrast here is with Cavendish's famous shyness and unwillingness to publish or part with his work. For the standard Mertonian view of this issue in science communication which, incidentally, relies on the example of Cavendish, see Merton's essay on
- Mulkay , Michael . 1980 . 'Interpretation and the Use of Rules: The Case of the Norms of Science' . Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences , 39 : 111 – 25 . 119 – 23 . On the negotiation of 'communalism' see, Series 2
- Roderick Murchison to William Harcourt, 28 December 1839, in Gentlemen of Science. Early Correspondence of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, ed. by Jack Morrell and Arnold Thackray (London: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 327-29 (pp. 328-29). The following draws on Miller, (note 46), pp. 14-17.
- Ashworth , William J. 1996 . 'Memory, Efficiency, and Symbolic Analysis: Charles Babbage, John Herschel, and the Industrial Mind' . Isis , 87 : 629 – 53 . 629
- 1834 . Report of the Third Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held at Cambridge in 1833 xi – xxvi . xxiv – xxv . London Yeo, Defining Science (note 46), pp. 225-26
- Mertens , Joost . 2000 . 'From Tubal Cain to Faraday: William Whewell as a Philosopher of Technology1 . History of Science , 38 : 321 – 42 . Report of the Third Meeting (note 54), p. xxv. A very useful recent account of Whewell's views on technology and 'art' is given in
- Brcwster , David . 1837 . 'ART. VI. History of the Inductive Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Times' . Edinburgh Review , 66 : 110 – 51 . 46 – AJ .
- 1840 . 'Life and Discoveries of James Watt' . Edinburgh Review , 70 : 466 – 502 . Ibid., pp. 147-48. Brewster's subsequent contributions to the reviews on these questions included
- 1846 . 'Watt and CavendishControversy Respecting the Composition of Water" . North British Review , 6 : 473 – 508 . Also, see note below
- Brewster , David . 1845 . Observations Connected with the Discovery of the Composition of Water' . The London, Edinburgh aid Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science , 27 : 195 – 97 . 196 This piece is primarily concerned with Brewster's denial that he took a national view of the question. He was writing in response to remarks made in the British Quarterly Review by George Wilson (see note 44). See also the rejoinder by
- Wilson . 1845 . 'Sir David Brewster and the British Quarterly Review' . British Quarterly Review , 2 : 575 – 78 .
- Brewster , David . 1840 . 'Life and Discoveries of James Watt' . Edinburgh Review , 70 : 466 – 502 . 496
- Ibid., p. 495.
- Brewster , David . 1846 . 'Watt and Cavendish' . North British Review , 6 : 478 – 508 .
- Ibid., p. 506.
- Ibid., pp. 507-08.
- Cantor . 1984 . “ 'Brewster on the Nature of Light' ” . In 'Martyr of Science': Sir David Brewster 1781-1868 Edited by: Morrison-Low , A.D. and Christie , J.R.R. 67 – 78 . Edinburgh See Cantor (note 35), pp. 175-85
- Miller , David Philip . 1986 . The Revival of the Physical Sciences in Britain, 1815-1840' . OSIRIS , 2 : 107 – 34 . Morrell and Thackray (note 30), pp. 466-72, 2nd Series, As Cantor (in Morrison-Low and Christie) tells us. Brougham was drawn into Brewster's last ditch work in optics. However, Brougham's efforts were even more readily dismissed by the Cambridge men than Brewster's
- Davie , George . 1961 . The Democratic Intellect. Scotland aid her Universities in the Nineteenth Century , 175 – 78 . Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press . On Brewster's antagonism toward the Cambridge group see, On his continuing struggles over the BAAS see Morrell and Thackray (note 30) and also J.B. Morrell, 'Brewster and the Early British Association for the Advancement of Science', in A.D. Morrison-Low and J.R.R. Christie (note 66), pp. 25-29.
- On Charles Hatchett and William Thomas Brande, both distinguished analysts, see Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vi, 166-67, and H, 420.
- Wilson , Jessie Aitken . 1860 . Memoirs of George Wilson Edinburgh On Wilson see
- Anderson , R.G.W. 1992 . '"What is Technology?": Education through Museums in the Mid-nineteenth Century' . British Journal for the History of Science , 25 : 169 – 84 .
- Waterston , Charles D. 1997 . Collections in Context: The Museum of the Royal Society of Edinburgh aid the Inception of a National Museum of Scotland , Edinburgh : National Museums of Scotland .
- Rehbock , Philip F. 1983 . The Philosophical Naturalists. Themes in Early Nineteenth-Century British Biology , 68 – 91 . Madison, WI : University of Wisconsin Press . Wilson was a member of the 'Universal Brotherhood of Truth' (or Oineromathic Brotherhood), an informal association formed by a group of students at Edinburgh University and led by Edward Forbes. The members of this group maintained strong links during their later careers and displayed strong idealist commitments. For Forbes and others these commitments manifested themselves in transcendentalist views of anatomy and natural history. It is likely that Wilson's chemical views were shaped by this philosophical outlook and that they were allied with Whewell's idealist treatment (including its application to chemical composition) of the philosophy of science in hiis Philosophy of the Inductiv Sciences. See
- Gay , Hannah and Gay , John W. 1997 . 'Brothers in Science: Science and Fraternal Culture in Nineteenth-Century Britain' . History of Science , 35 : 425 – 53 . 428 – 31 .
- Browne , E. Janet . 1981 . 'The Making of the Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S.' . Archives of Natural History , 10 : 205 – 19 . On the Forbes circle's tense relations with the BAAS leadership see Morrell and Thackray (note 30) p. 138
- Brock , W. H. 1978 . 'The Society for the Perpetuation of Gmelin: The Cavendish Society, 1846-1872" . Annals of Science , 35 : 599 – 617 . 605 In line with my general argument in this paper the Anglophilia involved may have been secondary, not least given the prominence of Scottish chemists among the leadership of the Cavendish Society
- Jeffrey , Francis . 1848 . The Discoverer of the Composition of Water; Watt or Cavendish?' . Edinburgh Review , 87 : 67 – 137 . This account is reconstructed from Francis Jeffrey's letters to Wilson and from the Muirhead-Wilson correspondence: see particularly Jeffrey to Wilson, 10 August 1847, Dk.6 23/1/16-17 and Jeffrey to Wilson, n.d. [1847], Dk.6 23/1/37, Edinburgh University Library. The review that was finally published was
- Morgan , Augustus De . 1954 . A Budget of Paradoxes [1872] , 15 – 19 . New York : Dover Publications . George Wilson to J .P. Muirhead, 1 February 1847, MS GEN 1354/218, Muirhead Papers, University of Glasgow Library. On the issue of anonymity in reviewing see, repr.
- Wilson , George . 1851 . The Life of the Horf Henry Cavendish , 366 – 72 . London : Cavendish Society . A good example of Wilson's sometimes impeccable historical practice is provided by the way he deals with the question of what can be concluded from Cavendish's laboratory notebook. Watt's supporters, such as Brougham, made a good deal of the fact that Cavendish's notebooks do not contain any claim to draw a conclusion about the composition of water from the experiments they record. Wilson shows through an elaborate analysis of Cavendish's method of working that he never entered conclusions in his notebook of such a significant kind. The absence of conclusions about the composition of water is thus normal practice and does not indicate that Cavendish had not drawn any conclusions. (See
- Bud , Robert and Roberts , Gerrylynn . 1984 . “ Science versus Practice ” . In Chemistry in Victorian Britain , Manchester : Manchester University Press .
Annals of Science
Volume 59, 2002 - Issue 2