Some phlogistic mineralogical schemes, illustrative of the evolution of the concept of ‘earth’ in the 17th and 18th centuries

References

• Oldroyd D.R. Some Neo-Platonic and Stoic Influences on Mineralogy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Ambix forthcoming in ‘Mechanical Mineralogy’, also forthcoming in Ambix.
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• Becher , J.J. 1669 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … Frankfurt This was republished by Stahl in 1703 with the following title: Joh. Joachimi Beccheri, D. Spirensis Germani Sacr. Caes. Majest. Consil. & Med. Elect. Bav. Physica Subterranea Profundam Subterraneorum Genesin, è principiis hucusque ignotis, ostendens. Opus Sine Pari, Primum hactenus & Princeps, Editio Novissima. Praefatione utili praemissâ, Indice locupletissimo adornato, sensuumque & rerum distinctionibus. Libro tersius & curatius edendo, operam navavit & Specimen Beccherianum, Fundamentorum, Documentorum, Experimentorum, subjunxit Georg. Ernestus Stahl, D. Prof. Publ. Ordin. Hall., Leipzig, 1703. The last edition of this was published with the same title in Leipzig in 1738. I have used these editions of 1703 and 1738.
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• He did, however, publish an essay on the origin of mineral veins De Ortu Venarum Metalliferarum Halle 1700 An English version of this is to be found in a collection of three Pyrotechnical Discourses (London, 1705 and 1730), the title being: A short Discourse on the Original of Metallick Veins; by George Ernest Stahl, M.D. which may serve as an Answer to Dr. Woodward's Theory of the Earth, and was a Forerunner to. Here Stahl argues against the occurrence of substantial changes in mineral veins since their initial formation, which, so he believes, took place when the globe was first formed.
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• Partington J.R. A History of Chemistry London1961 ii 637 652 4 vols. See also P. Duhem, La chimie est-elle une science française? Paris, 1916, ch. 5.
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• Becher , J.J. 1738 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 10 – 10 . Frankfurt It is a moot point as to the weight that should be allotted to the Hermetic tradition. As Frances Yates has pointed out (Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, London, 1964, ch. 2), the Mosaic and Hermetic accounts of the origin of the cosmos have much in common.
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• Becher , J.J. 1738 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 11 – 11 . Frankfurt The designation of the original chaos as a Panspermia suggests Stoic roots, but may also have been transmitted to Becher via the Hermetic tradition.
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• Becher , J.J. 1738 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 19 – 19 . Frankfurt This is clearly a precursor of the element/instrument theory of Stahl, in which EARTH, water, air and fire could all function as physical agents, whereas only EARTH and water were deemed to be capable of functioning as components of mixts. For G. F. Rouelle (see below, pp. 40–46), all four elements could play both rôles. (See R. Rappaport, ‘Rouelle and Stahl—the Phlogistic Revolution in France’, Chymia 1961, 7, 73–102).
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• Arnold , Cf.E.V. 1911 . Roman Stoicism … 195 – 196 . Cambridge (re-issued London, 1958)
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• Aristotle Meteorologica London and CambridgeMass.1952 29 29 translated by H. D. P. Lee 287 and 289.
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• E.g. Waite A.E. The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Aureolus Philippus Theophrastus Bombast, of Hohenheim, called Paracelsus the Great. Now for the first time faithfully translated into English London 1894 2 92 95 vol. i and 241
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 536 – 536 . Frankfurt
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 115 – 115 . Frankfurt
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 117 – 118 . Frankfurt This is a curious feature of Becher's theory. Clearly, it is his ambition to obtain his three EARTHS separate from each other, so that they can be used for synthetic purposes. In this respect, then, his aim is much the same as that of his successors. On the other hand, it is also clear, from his subsequent treatment of the question, that he has not succeeded in identifying any genuine elementary components of mineral substances.
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 121 – 121 . Frankfurt
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 123 – 123 . Frankfurt 126 and 128
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• Oldroyd , D.R. “ Some Neo-Platonic and Stoic Influences on Mineralogy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries ” . In Ambix forthcoming in
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 128 – 128 . Frankfurt Here Becher transliterates the Greek directly into the Latin, as ‘idea’.
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 114 – 114 . Frankfurt EARTH and water are the primary principles. The seeds (themselves made of EARTH and water) are secondary principles (principia principiata).
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 132 – 132 . Frankfurt
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 136 – 136 . Frankfurt
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 145 – 145 . Frankfurt The etymology of the word ‘Einwitterung’ is of considerable interest. Prima facie, one might imagine that it is directly related to the modern German terms ‘Einwitterung’, ‘Auswitterung’, or ‘Witterung’ (‘weathering down’, ‘weathering away’ or ‘efflorescence’, and ‘weathering’). But, as F. D. Adams has pointed out (“Origin and Nature of Ore Deposits: An Historical Study’, Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 1934, 45, 375–424), in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the German miners used the term for hypothetical exhalations, supposedly to be seen on occasions rising from ore bodies, mines, or from the ground. This tradition doubtless derives ultimately from the Aristotelian doctrine of exhalations, though it may also have had an empirical basis in the phenomena of fire-damp or coruscations arising from the ground. It should be noted, however, that this miners' term, now obsolete, is not related to the modern notion of ‘Witterung’. It is related to the largely forgotten English words ‘withering’, ‘widder’, and ‘whyzt’, meaning ‘wind’ or ‘blast of wind’. These terms supposedly derive from the Old Norse word, ‘huia’, meaning ‘squall’. Today, we remember it (in the northern dialect) from the title of Emily Bronte's novel—Wuthering Heights. The stated identity of Becher's ‘inhalationes’ and ‘Einwitterungen’ is thus readily accounted for. The doctrine of inhalations and exhalations, as understood by the German miners of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is exemplified by the following passage from J. F. Henckel's Pyritologia (see note 33a, below): ‘… and the matrix is not to be considered as a bare receptacle, but as a receptacle of proper materials too; that is, the inhalations, or impregnations, called inweatherings, cannot alone have their effect, nor their supplying their materials produce an ore, unless the matrix hold, and reciprocally furnish also, by means of an exhalation, called outweathering, its proper matter; that the passive may, by means of the agent, come into motion, to form the third body here intended’ (p. 79). The theory of ore formation is evident from this passage, but one may suggest that the translator, in rendering literally ‘Einwitterung’ and ‘Auswitterung’ as ‘inweathering’ and ‘outweathering’, has conflated two concepts, as we might easily do today.
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• For a discussion of the meaning of the term ‘Bergguhr’, see Adams F.D. The Origin and Nature of Ore Deposits Bulletin of the Geographical Society of America 1934 45 375 424 and also my paper ‘Some Neo-Platonic and Stoic Influences on Mineralogy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries’. (See note 1.)
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 150 – 150 . Frankfurt
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• Becher , J.J. 1703 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 155 – 155 . Frankfurt
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• Rodwell , G.F. 1868 . On the Theory of Phlogiston . Philosophical Magazine , 35 : 1 – 32 .
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• Partington J.R. A History of Chemistry London1961 ii 646 646 4 vols., (note 4)
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• Becher , J.J. 1738 . Actorum Laboratorii Chymici Monacensis, Seu Physicae Subterraneae Libri Duo, … Joannes Joachimus Becherus, … 238 – 252 . Frankfurt
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• For Henckel's mineralogical opinions, I have used the following translations: Pyritologie, ou Histoire Naturelle de la Pyrite, Ouvrage dans lequel on examine l'origine, la nature, les propriétés & les usages de ce Minéral important, & de la plûpart des autres Substances de même Regne: on y joint le Flora Saturnisans, où l'Auteur démontre l'alliance qui se trouve entre les Végétaux et les Minéraux; et les Opuscules Minéralogiques Qui comprennent un Traité de l'Appropriation, un Traité de l'Origine des Pierres, plusieurs Mémoires sur la Chymie & l'Histoire Naturelle, avec un Traité des Maladies des Mineurs & des Fondeurs. Par M. Jean-Frederic Henckel, … Paris 1760 (b) Introduction à la Minéralogie; ou Connoissance des Eaux, des sucs terrestres, des Sels, des Terres, des Pierres, des Minéraux, et des Métaux: Avec une Description abrégée des opérations de Métallurgie. Ouvrages Posthume de M. J. F. Henckel, publié sous le titre de Henckelius in Mineralogiâ redivus, & traduit de l'Allemand, 2 vols., Paris, 1756. (c) Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. …, London, 1762. The Pyritologia was first published in Leipzig in 1725; the Introduction first appeared in Dresden in 1747; the Flora Saturnizans in Leipzig in 1722, and the Opuscules in Leipzig in 1744. The posthumous Introduction (Henckelius in Mineralogiâ redivus, 1747) contained a précis of his mineralogical lectures at Freiburg.
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• Henckel J.F. Introduction à la Minéralogie; ou Connoissance des Eaux, des sucs terrestres, des Sels, des Terres, des Pierres, des Minéraux, et des Métaux: Avec une Description abrégée des opérations de Métallurgie. Ouvrages Posthume de M. J. F. Henckel, publié sous le titre de Henckelius in Mineralogiâ redivus, & traduit de l'Allemand Paris1756 i 4 4 2 vols. (note 33 b) Chemistry, he says, is the key to mineralogy.
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• Henckel J.F. Pyritologie, ou Histoire Naturelle de la Pyrite, Ouvrage dans lequel on examine l'origine, la nature, les propriétés & les usages de ce Minéral important, & de la plûpart des autres Substances de même Regne: on y joint le Flora Saturnisans, où l'Auteur démontre l'alliance qui se trouve entre les Végétaux et les Minéraux; et les Opuscules Minéralogiques Qui comprennent un Traité de l'Appropriation, un Traité de l'Origine des Pierres, plusieurs Mémoires sur la Chymie & l'Histoire Naturelle, avec un Traité des Maladies des Mineurs & des Fondeurs. Par M. Jean-Frederic Henckel, … Paris1760 9 9 (note 33 a) (in the Flora Saturnisans).
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• Henckel , J.F. 1762 . Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … 5 – 5 . London (note 33 c)
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• Henckel J.F. Pyritologie, ou Histoire Naturelle de la Pyrite, Ouvrage dans lequel on examine l'origine, la nature, les propriétés & les usages de ce Minéral important, & de la plûpart des autres Substances de même Regne: on y joint le Flora Saturnisans, où l'Auteur démontre l'alliance qui se trouve entre les Végétaux et les Minéraux; et les Opuscules Minéralogiques Qui comprennent un Traité de l'Appropriation, un Traité de l'Origine des Pierres, plusieurs Mémoires sur la Chymie & l'Histoire Naturelle, avec un Traité des Maladies des Mineurs & des Fondeurs. Par M. Jean-Frederic Henckel, … Paris1760 414 414 (note 33 a) 440 and passim. Cf., for example, E. F. Geoffroy, ‘Sur l'Origine des Pierres’, Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, Année M.DCC XVI. Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique & de Phisique, pour la même Année, Paris, 1718, pp. 8–16. Both Henckel and Geoffroy envisage the formation of crystals or stones occurring when minute terrestrial corpuscles are brought together by the agency of water. On the other hand, Henckel's theory does seem to have considerably stronger chemical features. He makes much of the appearance of ‘stones’ in urine that has been allowed to stand for some months; he considers that a ‘calcareous earth’ is needed as a ‘base’ for the formation of stones, serving to join together water and earth.
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• Henckel , J.F. 1762 . Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … 62 – 63 . London and: J. F. Henckel, op. cit., (note 33 a), pp. 18–19.
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• Henckel J.F. Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … London1762 62 63 (note 33 c) This passage is perhaps suggestive of ideas in Henckel's theories which might be construed as forerunners of the celebrated ‘aqueous’ doctrine of A. G. Werner. Elsewhere (op. cit., note 33 a, p. 438), Henckel refers to a thick, coagulated and gelatinous fluid, existing in a very soft state after the universal deluge—dense and very different from anything known today. This seems to be a likely forerunner of Werner's universal ocean, which should not, therefore, be thought of as being merely a scaled-up version of our modern oceans.
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• Henckel , J.F. 1762 . Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … 63 – 63 . London (note 33 c)
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• Henckel , J.F. 1762 . Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … 62 – 63 . London (note 33 c)
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• Henckel J.F. Pyritologie, ou Histoire Naturelle de la Pyrite, Ouvrage dans lequel on examine l'origine, la nature, les propriétés & les usages de ce Minéral important, & de la plûpart des autres Substances de même Regne: on y joint le Flora Saturnisans, où l'Auteur démontre l'alliance qui se trouve entre les Végétaux et les Minéraux; et les Opuscules Minéralogiques Qui comprennent un Traité de l'Appropriation, un Traité de l'Origine des Pierres, plusieurs Mémoires sur la Chymie & l'Histoire Naturelle, avec un Traité des Maladies des Mineurs & des Fondeurs. Par M. Jean-Frederic Henckel, … Paris1760 410 410 (note 33 a) (Originally published as: Idea Generalis de Lapidum Origine …, Dresden and Leipzig, 1734.)
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• Henckel , J.F. 1760 . Pyritologie, ou Histoire Naturelle de la Pyrite, Ouvrage dans lequel on examine l'origine, la nature, les propriétés & les usages de ce Minéral important, & de la plûpart des autres Substances de même Regne: on y joint le Flora Saturnisans, où l'Auteur démontre l'alliance qui se trouve entre les Végétaux et les Minéraux; et les Opuscules Minéralogiques Qui comprennent un Traité de l'Appropriation, un Traité de l'Origine des Pierres, plusieurs Mémoires sur la Chymie & l'Histoire Naturelle, avec un Traité des Maladies des Mineurs & des Fondeurs. Par M. Jean-Frederic Henckel, … 395 – 396 . Paris (note 33 a)
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• Henckel J.F. Introduction à la Minéralogie; ou Connoissance des Eaux, des sucs terrestres, des Sels, des Terres, des Pierres, des Minéraux, et des Métaux: Avec une Description abrégée des opérations de Métallurgie. Ouvrages Posthume de M. J. F. Henckel, publié sous le titre de Henckelius in Mineralogiâ redivus, & traduit de l'Allemand Paris1756 2 36 37 (note 33 b), vol. i It may be noted, however, that in the Pyritologia (p. 5) Henckel states: ‘I attempt not to separate or resolve the pyrites, either into the four elements, the three, or other imaginary principles; as being things that can never be made objects of our senses …’.
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• Henckel , J.F. 1756 . Introduction à la Minéralogie; ou Connoissance des Eaux, des sucs terrestres, des Sels, des Terres, des Pierres, des Minéraux, et des Métaux: Avec une Description abrégée des opérations de Métallurgie. Ouvrages Posthume de M. J. F. Henckel, publié sous le titre de Henckelius in Mineralogiâ redivus, & traduit de l'Allemand Vol. 2 , 65 ff – 65 ff . Paris (note 33 b)
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• Henckel , J.F. 1762 . Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … 97 – 97 . London (note 33 c)
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• Henckel , J.F. 1762 . Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … 100 – 100 . London (note 33 c)
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• Becher , J.J. 1671 . Experimentum Chymicum Novum, quo artificialis & instantanea Metallorum Generatio & Transmutatio ad oculorum demonstratur, … 36 – 37 . Frankfurt
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• Henckel , J.F. 1762 . Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … 143 – 143 . London (note 33 c)
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• Henckel J.F. Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … London1762 145 145 (note 33 c) (Cf. note 26.)
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• Henckel , J.F. 1762 . Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … 148 – 148 . London (note 33 c)
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• Henckel , J.F. 1760 . Pyritologie, ou Histoire Naturelle de la Pyrite, Ouvrage dans lequel on examine l'origine, la nature, les propriétés & les usages de ce Minéral important, & de la plûpart des autres Substances de même Regne: on y joint le Flora Saturnisans, où l'Auteur démontre l'alliance qui se trouve entre les Végétaux et les Minéraux; et les Opuscules Minéralogiques Qui comprennent un Traité de l'Appropriation, un Traité de l'Origine des Pierres, plusieurs Mémoires sur la Chymie & l'Histoire Naturelle, avec un Traité des Maladies des Mineurs & des Fondeurs. Par M. Jean-Frederic Henckel, … 430 – 430 . Paris (note 33 a)
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• Cf. Henckel J.F. Pyritologie, ou Histoire Naturelle de la Pyrite, Ouvrage dans lequel on examine l'origine, la nature, les propriétés & les usages de ce Minéral important, & de la plûpart des autres Substances de même Regne: on y joint le Flora Saturnisans, où l'Auteur démontre l'alliance qui se trouve entre les Végétaux et les Minéraux; et les Opuscules Minéralogiques Qui comprennent un Traité de l'Appropriation, un Traité de l'Origine des Pierres, plusieurs Mémoires sur la Chymie & l'Histoire Naturelle, avec un Traité des Maladies des Mineurs & des Fondeurs. Par M. Jean-Frederic Henckel, … Paris 1760 414 414 (note 33 a)
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• Partington J.R. A History of Chemistry London1961 4 637 652 718 718 Vol. ii (note 4)
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• Pott , J.H. 1746 . … Chymische Untersuchungen welche fürnehmlich von der Lithogeognosia oder Erkäntniss und Bearbeitung der gemeinen einfacheren Steine und Erden ingleichen von Feuer und Licht handeln Vol. i , Potsdam vol. ii, Potsdam and Berlin, 1751. I have used the French translation of Baron d'Holbach: Lithogéognosie, ou Examen Chymique des Pierres et des Terres en Général, Et du Talc, de la Topaze, & de la Stéatite en particulier, Avec une Dissertation sur le Feu & sur la Lumière, 2 vols., Paris, 1753.
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• Pott J.H. … Chymische Untersuchungen welche fürnehmlich von der Lithogeognosia oder Erkäntniss und Bearbeitung der gemeinen einfacheren Steine und Erden ingleichen von Feuer und Licht handeln Potsdam1746 i 7 7 vol. i (As we have seen above, Becher linked quartz with his first EARTH, though this was done in a tentative fashion.)
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• 1738 . Published in Latin Berlin (in Exercitationes Chymicae). It also appears in Demachy's translation of Pott's collected essays: Dissertationes Chymiques de M. Pott, Professeur de Chymie, & Membre de l'Accadémie Royale des Sciences de Berlin …, 4 vols., Paris, 1759, vol. i, pp. 1–132.
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• Pott , J.H. 1746 . … Chymische Untersuchungen welche fürnehmlich von der Lithogeognosia oder Erkäntniss und Bearbeitung der gemeinen einfacheren Steine und Erden ingleichen von Feuer und Licht handeln Vol. i , 327 – 404 . Potsdam (note 55), ‘Essai D'Observations Chymiques et Physiques, Sur les Propriétés et les Effets de la Lumière et du Feu’,
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• Pott , J.H. 1746 . … Chymische Untersuchungen welche fürnehmlich von der Lithogeognosia oder Erkäntniss und Bearbeitung der gemeinen einfacheren Steine und Erden ingleichen von Feuer und Licht handeln Vol. i , 328 – 328 . Potsdam
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• Pott , J.H. 1746 . … Chymische Untersuchungen welche fürnehmlich von der Lithogeognosia oder Erkäntniss und Bearbeitung der gemeinen einfacheren Steine und Erden ingleichen von Feuer und Licht handeln Vol. i , 348 – 348 . Potsdam (This is a Stahlian doctrine. Cf. Stahl's Experimenta, Observationes, Animadversiones, CCC Numero, Chymicae et Physicae, Berlin, 1731, No. CXLIII, pp. 196–197.)
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• Pott , J.H. 1746 . … Chymische Untersuchungen welche fürnehmlich von der Lithogeognosia oder Erkäntniss und Bearbeitung der gemeinen einfacheren Steine und Erden ingleichen von Feuer und Licht handeln Vol. i , 356 – 356 . Potsdam This doctrine is also to be found in the writings of Becher and Stahl (and even Lavoisier). See J. R. Partington, op. cit., (note 4), pp. 648, 673.
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• Lavoisier , A.L. 1862–1893 . Oeuvres de Lavoisier … Vol. ii , 640 – 640 . Paris 6 vols.
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1747 . Mineralogia, eller Mineral-Riket … Stockholm I have used the French translation of 1753: Mineralogie ou Description Générale des Substances du Regne Mineral, 2 vols., Paris, 1753.
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1779 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi Stockholm and Uppsala (not seen). I have used the French translation of J. B. Dubois: De L'Origine du Monde, et de la Terre en particulier; Ouvrage dans lequel l'Auteur développe ses Principes de Chymie & de Minéralogie, & donne, en quelque manière, un abrégé de tous ces Ouvrages: Par M. Wallérius, … Warsaw, 1780
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1779 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi Vol. i , 576 – 577 . Stockholm and Uppsala (note 64, 1753)
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1779 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi 524 – 524 . Stockholm and Uppsala
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• Siegfried , R. and Dobbs , B.J. 1968 . Composition, a Neglected Aspect of the Chemical Revolution . Annals of Science , 24 : 275 – 293 .
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1779 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi Vol. i , 319 – 320 . Stockholm and Uppsala (note 64, 1753)
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• For a discussion of the use of the term ‘base’ in early chemistry, see my paper: Some Early Usages of Chemical Terms Journal of Chemical Education 1973 50 7 450 454
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1779 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi Vol. i , xxiij – xxiij . Stockholm and Uppsala (note 64, 1753)
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• Cf. the neat three-by-three system of classification in the mineral system of Wallerius's rationalist countryman, Linnaeus C. … Systema Naturae … Leyden 1735 unpaginated (facsimile edition, Nieuwkoop, 1964).
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1779 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi Stockholm and Uppsala
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1780 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi 141 – 145 . Stockholm and Uppsala It should be noted that Wallerius's suggestions, which I have represented here in diagrammatic form, are explicitly stated to be conjectural.
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1780 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi 83 – 83 . Stockholm and Uppsala 86–93, 132 and passim.
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1780 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi 161 – 161 . Stockholm and Uppsala
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1780 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi 159 – 159 . Stockholm and Uppsala
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1780 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi 123 – 123 . Stockholm and Uppsala
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1780 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi 124 – 124 . Stockholm and Uppsala
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1780 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi 84 – 84 . Stockholm and Uppsala
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• Wallerius , J.G. 1780 . Meditationes physico-chemicae de origine mundi, imprimis geocosmi ejusdemque metamorphosi 118 – 118 . Stockholm and Uppsala It is a moot point whether one should represent Wallerius's intention by ‘earth’ or ‘EARTH’. He speaks of an ‘elementary earth’, yet at the same time he seems to be trying to identify it with an empirically identifiable substance, referring to the products of the putrefaction or incineration of human bodies!
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• In his second major exposition of his mineralogical system Systema Mineralogicum, Quo Corpora Mineralia in Classes, Ordines, Genera et Species, suis iam varietatibus divisa, describuntur, atque observationes, experimentis et figuris aeneis illustrantur, à Johan. Gotsch. Wallerio. … Stockholm 1772–1775 i 3 3 2 vols. Wallerius insists on the continuing formation of minerals, but categorically denies that the increase is due to any kind of ‘organic’ process
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• Much of Wallerius's ‘Origin of the World’ is based on the Mosaic account of Creation, or is devoted to attempts to reconcile this account with empirical observations. The belief in an early period during which the globe was in a fluid condition, and the assumption that all substances had an aqueous origin, are clearly beholden to the Mosaic tradition. Thus, I suggest, the celebrated ‘aqueous’ theory that culminated in the work of Werner, had important roots in the theories of the phlogistic mineralogists, themselves stemming in part from the tradition of Genesis. (See note 39, above). Henckel J.F. Pyritologia: or, a History of the Pyrites, the Principal Body in the Mineral Kingdom. In which are considered its Names, Species, Beds, and Origin; its Iron, Copper, unmetallic Earth, Sulphur, Arsenic, Silver, Gold, original Particles, Vitriol, and Use in smelting. The whole compiled from a Collection of Samples; from visiting Mines; from an Intercourse and Correspondence with Naturalists and Miners; but chiefly from a Course of Chymical Enquiries. … London 1762 62 63
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• Geikie , A.A. 1905 . The Founders of Geology , 2nd edn. London (republished, New York, 1962), p. 233. Lehmann's principal geological theories are contained in his Versuch einer Geschichte von Flötz-Gebürgen, Berlin, 1756, which in translation forms the third part of the French edition of his major works: Traité de physique, d'histoire naturelle, de minéralogie et de métallurgie, 3 vols., Paris, 1759. The second of these volumes is the most important from our point of view. It bears the title: Traité de la Formation des Métaux, et de leurs Matrices ou Minieres: Ouvrage fondé sur les principes de la Physique & de la Minéralogie, & confirmé par des Expériences Chymiques, Par M. Jean-Gotlob Lehmann, … Traduit de l'Allemand, Paris, 1759.
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• Lehmann , J.G. The Founders of Geology 64 – 64 . (Traité de la Formation des Métaux)
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• Becher , J.J. 1671 . Experimentum Chymicum Novum, quo artificialis & instantanea Metallorum Generatio & Transmutatio ad oculorum demonstratur, … 36 – 37 . Frankfurt
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• Lehmann , J.G. The Founders of Geology 75 – 75 .
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• Lehmann , J.G. The Founders of Geology 85 – 85 .
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• Lehmann , J.G. The Founders of Geology 108 – 108 . (This is also Stahl's opinion: Philosophical Principles of Universal Chemistry … Drawn from the Collegium Jenense of Dr. George Ernest Stahl. By Peter Shaw M.D., London, 1730, pp. 8–9. For Lehmann, ‘Nature’ is to be interpreted as the perpetual motion of bodies, the motion having been imparted by God.)
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• Lehmann , J.G. The Founders of Geology 111 – 111 .
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• Paracelsus . 1894 . The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Aureolus Philippus Theophrastus Bombast, of Hohenheim, called Paracelsus the creat. Now for the first time faithfully translated into English Vol. 2 , 202 – 202 . London (note 12), vol. i
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• Lehmann , J.G. The Founders of Geology 253 – 253 .
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• Lehmann , J.G. The Founders of Geology 374 – 374 . This opinion is similar to that expressed by earlier French ‘mechanical’ mineralogists such as R.A.F. de Réaumur. (‘Sur la Rondeur que Semblent affecter certaines especes de Pierres, & entr'autres sur celle qu'affectent les Cailloux’, Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences. Année M.DCC XXIII. Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique & de Phisique, pour la même Année, Paris, 1725, pp. 9–13 and 273–284).
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• Rappaport , R. 1961 . Rouelle and Stahl—the Phlogistic Revolution in France . Chymia , 7 : 73 – 102 . (note 8).
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• Rappaport , R. 1960 . G. F. Rouelle: An Eighteenth-Century Chemist and Teacher . Chymia , 6 : 68 – 101 .
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• Macquer , P.J. 1749 . Elemens de Chymie Theorique 2 – 2 . Paris
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• Cronsdedt , A.F. 1758 . Försök til Mineralogie, eller Mineral-Rikets upställning Stockholm It should be noted that there is still considerable uncertainty as to the exact dating of the various parts of the Clifton College MS. The section on earths and stones occurs in the latter portion of the notes, which were, in any case, probably copied some years after the lectures were delivered.
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• Rouelle , G.F. 1960 . G. F. Rouelle: An Eighteenth-Century Chemist and Teacher . Chymia , 6 : 910 – 910 . (note 96)
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• Linnaeus , C. 1735 . … Systmema Nature … Leyden (note 72).
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• Baumé , A. 1763 . Manuel de Chymie, ou Exposé des Opérations et des Produits d'un Cours de Chymie. Ouvrage utile aux personnes qui veulent suivre un Cours de cette Science, ou qui ont dessein de se former un Cabinet de Chymie Paris
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• Baumé , A. 1763 . Manuel de Chymie, ou Exposé des Opérations et des Produits d'un Cours de Chymie. Ouvrage utile aux personnes qui veulent suivre un Cours de cette Science, ou qui ont dessein de se former un Cabinet de Chymie 16 – 16 . Paris This doctrine has Stahlian roots, as well as being found in Macquer's Elemens. It converts the four Aristotelian elements into mixts.
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• Baumé , A. 1763 . Manuel de Chymie, ou Exposé des Opérations et des Produits d'un Cours de Chymie. Ouvrage utile aux personnes qui veulent suivre un Cours de cette Science, ou qui ont dessein de se former un Cabinet de Chymie 20 – 20 . Paris
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• Baumé , A. 1763 . Manuel de Chymie, ou Exposé des Opérations et des Produits d'un Cours de Chymie. Ouvrage utile aux personnes qui veulent suivre un Cours de cette Science, ou qui ont dessein de se former un Cabinet de Chymie 65 – 65 . Paris (note 102)
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• Baumé , A. 1763 . Manuel de Chymie, ou Exposé des Opérations et des Produits d'un Cours de Chymie. Ouvrage utile aux personnes qui veulent suivre un Cours de cette Science, ou qui ont dessein de se former un Cabinet de Chymie 299 – 299 . Paris
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• Baumé , A. 1763 . Manuel de Chymie, ou Exposé des Opérations et des Produits d'un Cours de Chymie. Ouvrage utile aux personnes qui veulent suivre un Cours de cette Science, ou qui ont dessein de se former un Cabinet de Chymie 100 – 100 . Paris
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• Baumé , A. 1773 . Chymie Experimentale et Raisonée Paris 3 vols.
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• Baumé , A. 1773 . Chymie Experimentale et Raisonée Vol. i , 162 – 162 . Paris 3 vols.
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• Baumé A. Chymie Experimentale et Raisonée Paris1773 120 120 3 vols. This is not unlike Wallerius's doctrine, discussed above, p. 31. Such a position goes some way towards retaining the traditional view of phlogiston as a kind of ‘earthy’ substance.
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• Baumé , A. 1773 . Chymie Experimentale et Raisonée Vol. iii , 307 – 307 . Paris 3 vols.
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• Baumé A. Chymie Experimentale et Raisonée Paris1773 321 321 3 vols. (Supposedly, the phlogiston combines with calcareous earth more readily than with vitrifiable earth. Consequently, calcareous earth is a necessary inter-mediary in the formation of metals.)
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• See: Metzger H. Newton, Stahl, Boerhaave et la Doctrine Chimique Paris 1930 139 139
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• See, for example: Ferguson E.J. Bergman, Klaproth, Vunquelin, Wollaston Journal of Chemical Education 1940 17 555 562 and 1941, 18, 3–7; J. A. Schufle, ‘Torbern Bergman, Earth Scientist’, Chymia, 1967, 12, 58–97; F. Szabadváry, History of Analytical Chemistry, Oxford, 1966, pp. 71–81; J. R. Partington, op. cit., (note 4), vol. iii, pp. 179–199; A Fredga and S. Rydén, ‘The notes of Juan José de Elhuyar from the lecture notes of Torbern Bergman in 1782’, Lychnos, 1959, 18, 161–208.
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• A résumé of Bergman's general method for the analysis of minerals has been given in Campbell W.A. Mallen C.E. The Development of Qualitative Analysis from 1750 to 1850 Part 1 Proceedings of the University of Durham Philosophical Society 1959 13 (Series A, No. 12), 108–118, and in somewhat more detail in my paper ‘Some Eighteenth Century Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Minerals’, Journal of Chemical Education, 1973, 50, (5), 337–340.
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• Bergman , T.O. 1783 . Outlines of Mineralogy, translated from the Original of Sir Torbern Bergman by William Withering Birmingham In his earlier work, Bergman had included the diamond in his list of elementary earths: ‘Disquisitio Chemica de Terra Gemmarum’, Nova Acta Regiae Societatis Scientiarum Upsaliensis, 1777, 3, 137–170. This paper was republished in Bergman's collected Physical and Chemical Essays: Opuscula Physica et Chemica …, 6 vols., Stockholm, Uppsala and Åbo, 1779–1790, vol. ii, pp. 72–117.
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• On Marggraf's contributions, see Szabadváry F. History of Analytical Chemistry Oxford 1966 55 59
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• Stahl , G.E. 1723 . Fundamenta Chymiae Dogmaticae & Experimentalis, … Nuremberg preface.
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• Siegfried , R. and Dobbs , B.J. 1968 . Composition, a Neglected Aspect of the Chemical Revolution . Annals of Science , 24 : 275 – 293 .
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