Some methodological and historical considerations in low temperature

References

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• By 1928 there was a successful theory of electrical conductivity due to the work of Sommerfeld A. Zür Electronen-Theorie der Metalle auf Grund der Fermischen Statistik Zeitschrift für Physik 1928 47 1 32 and F. Bloch, ‘Uber die Quanten Mechanik der Elektronen in Kirstallgittern’, ibid., 52 (1929), 555–600, where nearly all the properties of metals were understood qualitatively and in most cases quantitatively as well.
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• An instance of a successful use of such a method is Pauli's proposal for the existence of the neutrino where a particle with properties that defined all the accepted criteria for elementary particles was used to account for the missing energy. An attempt years later to use the same method in order to account for parity violation was not successful. See Gavroglou K. Popper's Schema, Progressive Research Programs and the Case of Parity Violation in Elementary Particles Physics 1953–1958 Zeitschrift für allgemeine Wissenschaftstheories (to be published in
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• In 1924, Kamerlingh Onnes and Boks found that the density-temperature function has a sharp maximum with a discontinuity of its slope at 2·19 K; Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Refrigeration Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Refrigeration London Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Refrigeration London 1924 London 1925 189 a 200 a 2 vols I Reprinted in Com. Phys. Lab. Leiden, no. 170 b (1925). In 1928, Keesom and Wolfke, comparing the discontinuity with a phase transition, were first to use the terminology ‘helium I’ and helium II' suggesting the idea of a kind of allotropic modification, helium II being the low temperature form. (Com. Phys. Lab. Leiden, 190 b.) Specific heat measurements by Keesom and Clusius in 1932 showed a singularity of the specific heat curve whose characteristic profile resembles the shape of the letter λ; Proceedings of the Royal Academy, Amsterdam, 35 (1932), 307.
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• This was discovered independently and almost simultaneously in 1938 by P. Kapitza in Moscow Kapitza Viscosity of Liquid Helium below the λ-Point Nature 1938 141 74 74 and J. F. Allen and A. D. Misener in Cambridge (Allen and Misener, ‘Flow of Liquid Helium II’, Nature, 141 (1938), 75).
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• The fountain effect was discovered in 1938 by Allen J.F. Jones H. New Phenomena Connected with Heat Flow in Helium II Nature 1938 141 243 244
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• This ‘supersurface’ film phenomenon was verified Daunt J.G. Mendelssohn K. Transfer of Helium II on Glass Nature 1938 141 911 912 and ‘Transfer effect in Liquid Helium II’, ibid., 142 (1938), 475.
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• See article by Kapitza Viscosity of Liquid Helium below the λ-Point Nature 1938 141 74 74
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• See article by Allen Jones New Phenomena Connected with Heat Flow in Helium II Nature 1938 141 243 244
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• F. London as quoted in Pines D. Elementary excitations in quantum liquids Physics Today 1981 11 106 131 (p. 119). Cf. London (footnote 29), and ‘On the Bose-Einstein Condensation’, Physical Reviews, 54 (1938), 947–54.
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