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Luigi Galvani and the debate on animal electricity, 1791–1800

Naum Kipnis Bakken Library of Electricity in Life, 3537 Zenith Avenue South, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 55416, U.S.A.
Pages 107-142 | Received 20 Jan 1986, Published online: 23 Aug 2006

  • Cohen , I. Bernard . 1953 . “ Introduction ” . In Commentary on the Effects of Electricity on Muscular Motion Edited by: Galvani , L. 41 – 41 . Norwalk in translated by Margaret Glover Foley (This translation will be cited hereafter as Commentary.)
  • Hoff , H. 1936 . Galvani and pre-Galvanian electrophysiologists . Annals of Science , 1 : 157 – 172 .
  • Hoff , H. 1936 . Galvani and pre-Galvanian electrophysiologists . Annals of Science , 1 : 169 – 169 .
  • Walker , W.C. 1937 . Animal Electricity before Galvani . Annals of Science , 2 : 84 – 113 . (p. 111).
  • Hoppe , Edmund . 1884 . Geschichte der Elektrizität 118 – 118 . Leipzig reprint: Wiesbaden, 1969) Hoff (footnote 2), 169–70; Bern Dibner, Galvani-Volta, A Controversy that led to the Discovery of Useful Electricity (Norwalk, Conn., 1952), pp. 21. 29.
  • Wolf , A. 1961 . A History of Science, Technology, & Philosophy in the 18th Century , second edition Vol. I , 260 – 260 . New York revised by D. McKie
  • Gill , Sydney . 1976 . A Voltaic Enigma and a Possible Solution to it . Annals of Science , 33 : 351 – 370 .
  • Walker . 1937 . Animal Electricity before Galvani . Annals of Science , 2 : 111 – 111 .
  • Rothschuh , K.E. 1960 . Vor der Idee bis zum Nachweis der thierischen Elekttrizität . Sudhoffs Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin , 44 : 25 – 44 . (pp. 25, 36–41).
  • See Cohen I. Bernard Introduction Commentary on the Effects of Electricity on Muscular Motion Galvani L. Norwalk 1953 41 41 in translated by Margaret Glover Foley 2, 4, 9, and also W. D. Hackmann, ‘The Researches of Dr. Martinus Van Marum (1750–1837) on the Influence of Electricity on Animals and Plants’, Medical History, 16 (1972), 11–26, and his ‘Electrical Researches’, in Martinus van Marum: Life and Work, edited by R. J. Forbes, 6 vols (Haarlem, 1969–1976), III, 329–78; J. L. Heilbron, Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries (Berkeley, 1979), pp. 353–4, 491; R. W. Home, ‘Electricity and the Nervous Fluid’, Journal of the History of Biology, 3 (1970), pp. 235–51; and Margaret Rowbottom and Charles Susskind, Electricity and Medicine: History of Their Interaction (San Francisco, 1984), pp. 15–30.
  • ‘D. Cottunio to G. Vivenzio, 2 October 1784’, in Vivenzio G. Teoria e pratica della elettricità medica del Sig. T. Cavallo Naples 1784 157 157 translated from English See the English translation of this letter in T. Cavallo, A Complete Treatise on Electricity, fourth edition, 3 vols (London, 1795), III, 6–8; and an excerpt from it in Walker (footnote 4), 104.
  • Volta , A. 1792 . Memoria prima sull' elettricità animale . Giornale fisico medico , 2 : 146 – 187 . (p. 150); also Le opere di Alessandro Volta, 7 vols. (Milano, 1918; reprint: New York, 1968), I, 15–35 (pp. 19–20). Hereafter this edition will be referred to as ‘Opere’.
  • Hoff . 1936 . Galvani and pre-Galvanian electrophysiologists . Annals of Science , 1 : 169 – 169 . Walker (footnote 4), 84.
  • Nollet , J. 1754 . Recherches sur les causes particulières des phénomènes électriques , new edition 366 – 391 . Paris G. Beccaria, Dell' elettricismo artificiale e naturale (Turin, 1753), pp. 124–35.
  • See Heathcote Niels H. de V. The early meaning of electricity: some Pseudodoxia Epidemica Annals of Science 1967 23 261 275
  • Musschenbroek , P. 1762 . Introductio ad Philosophiam Naturalem Vol. 2 , 289 – 289 . Leiden I F. Fontana, Traité sur le venin de la uipère, 2 vols (Florence, 1781), II, 244.
  • Nollet , J. 1753 . Essai sur l'électricité des corps , third edition 119 – 137 . Paris J. Jallabert, Expériences sur l'électricité (Paris, 1749), pp. 263–4; and John Freke, Treatise on the Nature and Property of Fire (London, 1747), pp. 24–7.
  • Allamand , J.N. 1755 . Kort Verhaal van de Uitwerkzelen, welke een Americaanse Vis . Verhandelingen uitgegeeven door de Hollandse Maattschappy der Weetenschappen te Harlem , 2 : 372 – 379 . see also Walker (footnote 4), 89–90.
  • Priestley , J. 1775 . The History and Present State of Electricity , third edition Vol. 2 , 3 – 9 . London reprint: New York, 1966), I
  • van der Lott , Frans . 1761 . Kort Bericht van den Conger-Aal, ofte Drilvisch . Verhandelingen uitgegeeven door de Hollandse Maattschappy der Weetenschappen te Harlem , 6 : 87 – 95 . P. Musschenbroek, Introductio ad philosophiam naturalem, 2 vols (Leiden, 1762), I, 290.
  • Cavallo , T. 1786 . A Complete Treatise on Electricity , third edition Vol. 2 , 300 – 301 . London II
  • Cavallo , T. 1786 . A Complete Treatise on Electricity , third edition Vol. 2 , 301 – 301 . London II
  • Fontana . 1762 . Introduction ad Philosophiam Naturalem Vol. 2 , 244 – 245 . Leiden I italics added.
  • Fordyce , G. 1788 . The Croonian Lecture on Muscular Motion . Philosophical Transactions , 78 : 23 – 36 . (p. 26), italics added.
  • Volta . 1792 . Memoria prima sull' elettricità animale . Giornale fisico medico , 2 : 21 – 21 .
  • 1937 . Memorie ed esperimenti inediti di Luigi Galvani 287 – 287 . Bologna
  • 1937 . Memorie ed esperimenti inediti di Luigi Galvani 387 – 387 . Bologna
  • 1937 . Memorie ed esperimenti inediti di Luigi Galvani 33 – 33 . Bologna
  • 1937 . Memorie ed esperimenti inediti di Luigi Galvani 397 – 403 . Bologna
  • 1937 . Memorie ed esperimenti inediti di Luigi Galvani 36 – 37 . Bologna
  • 1937 . Memorie ed esperimenti inediti di Luigi Galvani 38 – 38 . Bologna
  • Galvani , L. 1791 . De viribus electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius . De Bononiensi scientiarum et artium instituto atque academia , 7 : 363 – 418 .
  • Galvani . Commentary 65 – 65 .
  • Galvani . Commentary 67 – 67 .
  • Galvani . Commentary 66 – 67 .
  • Galvani . Commentary 68 – 69 .
  • Galvani . Commentary 64 – 64 . 69, 78, 81.
  • Galvani . Commentary 81 – 81 .
  • Galvani . Commentary 68 – 68 .
  • Galvani . Commentary 76 – 76 .
  • Galvani . Commentary 82 – 82 .
  • 1792 . Intorno all'influenza dell'elettricità nel moto muscolare . Giornale fisico medico , 1 : 280 – 281 .
  • Sulzer , J. 1752 . Recherches sur l'origine des sentiments agréables et desagréables . Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres, Berlin , 8 : 350 – 390 . (p. 356).
  • See Hoppe Edmund Geschichte der Elektrizität Leipzig 1884 118 118 reprint: Wiesbaden, 1969) and 7.
  • Volta , A. Lettera a M.me Le Noir de Nanteuil, 14 May 1782 . Opere , I 8 – 12 .
  • Volta , A. Memoria prima . Opere , I 15 – 35 . ‘Memoria seconda sull's elettricità animale’, ibid., pp. 41–82.
  • Valli , E. 1793 . Experiments on Animal Electricity with Their Application to Physiology, and Some Pathological and Medical Observations London
  • Carradori , G. 1793 . Lettera…al Sig. Cav. Felice Fontana sull' elettricità animale . Giornale fisico medico , 2 : 50 – 64 . G. Aldini, ‘De animalis electricae theoria ortu atque incrementis', in Aloysii Galvani de viribus electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius cum Johannis Aldini dissertatione et notis (Mutinae, 1792)’, iii–xxvi. The references will be given to its English translation in Galvani, Commentary on the Effect of Electricity on Muscular Motion, translated by Robert Montraville Green (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), pp. 1–20 (p. 3). This book will be cited hereafter as ‘Galvani on Electricity’.
  • Volta , A. Lettera seconda a van Marum, 11 October 1792 . Opere , I 133 – 141 .
  • Wells , W. 1795 . Observations on the influence, which incites the muscles of animals to contract in Mr. Galvani's experiments . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , : 246 – 262 . (pp. 249–50).
  • Volta . Lettera seconda a van Marum, 11 October 1792 . Opere , I 141 – 141 . italics added.
  • Volta , A. 1793 . Account of some discoveries made by Mr. Galvani…In a letter to Mr. Tiberius Cavallo . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , : 10 – 44 . Also Opere, I, 173–208 (p. 180).
  • Volta , A. 1793 . Account of some discoveries made by Mr. Galvani…In a letter to Mr. Tiberius Cavallo . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , : 180 – 180 .
  • Volta , A. 1793 . Account of some discoveries made by Mr. Galvani…In a letter to Mr. Tiberius Cavallo . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , : 181 – 181 .
  • Gren , F. 1792 . Bemerkungen über die sogennante tierische Elektrizität . Journal der Physik , 6 : 402 – 410 . (pp. 409–10).
  • Bennet , A. 1789 . New Experiments on Electricity Derby
  • 1793 . Monthly Review , 11 : 421 – 422 . 13 (1793), 300–301.
  • Volta , A. Lettera prima al Sig. Vassalli, 10 February 1794 . Opere , I 263 – 268 . (p. 268).
  • Aldini , G. 1794 . De Animali Electricitate. Dissertationes Due 5 – 9 . Bologna dissertation I
  • Supplemento al trattato dell'uso e dell'attivita dell'arco conduttore , 3 – 23 . (pp. 4–6); added to Dell'uso e dell'attivita dell'arco conduttore nelle contrazione dei muscoli (Bologna, 1794). Has been attributed to Galvani with possible assistance of Aldini; see John F. Fulton and Harvey Cushing, ‘A Bibliographical Study of the Galvani and the Aldini Writings on Animal Electricity’, Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 239–68 (pp. 260–62). The description of this experiment is translated in Dibner, Galvani-Volta, pp. 50–1.
  • Volta , A. Seconda lettera al Sig. Vassali [1794] . Opere , I 271 – 281 .
  • Volta , A. Lettera al Cav. Banks, 30 March 1795 . Opere , I 251 – 257 . (p. 255).
  • Volta , A. Lettera prima al Prof. Gren di Halla, 1 August 1796 . Opere , I 395 – 413 . see also Neues Journal der Physik, 3 (1797), 479–81.
  • Volta , A. Lettera terza al Sig. Vassali, 27 October 1795 . Opere , I 289 – 301 . (p. 297).
  • Volta , A. Risposta alle domande dell' Abate Tommaselli [1792] . Opere , I 113 – 118 . (p. 117).
  • Volta , A. Lettera seconda al Prof. Gren, [August 1796] . Opere , I 417 – 431 . (p. 418); see also Neues Journal der Physik, 4 (1797), 107–35 (p. 109), italics added.
  • Volta , A. Lettera seconda al Prof. Gren, [August 1796] . Opere , I 128 – 135 .
  • Delamétherie , J. 1798 . Discours préliminaire…Du Galvanisme . Journal de Physique. , 46 : 37 – 44 . (p. 43).
  • Cavallo . 1795 . A Complete Treatise on Electricity , fourth edition Vol. III , 29 – 30 . London 3 vols
  • Cuthbertson , J. 1802 . An Examination of Sig. Volta's Experiments which He Calls Fundamental, and upon which His Theory of Galvanism Rests . Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy , 2 : 281 – 289 .
  • Bostock , J. 1802 . Outline of the History of Galvanism . Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy , 2 : 296 – 304 . (p. 301).
  • Cuvier , F. 1801 . Rapport sur le galvanisme, fait à l'Institut National . Journal de Physique , 52 : 318 – 321 . (p. 318).
  • See, for instance Bleaney B.I. Bleaney B. Electricity and Magnetism Oxford 1957 85 87
  • Pupilli , Giulio C. “ Introduction ” . In Galvani on Electricity Vol. XIII , 111 – 111 . (footnote 47) W. Walker (footnote 4)
  • Fulton , J. 1926 . Muscular Contraction and the Reflex Control of Movement 37 – 37 . Baltimore
  • Galvani , L. 1792 . Lettera al Sig. Prof. Don Bassiano Carminati . Giornale fisico medico , 2 : 131 – 145 . See also Galvani on Electricity, pp. 90–1.
  • Valli . 1793 . Experiments on Animal Electricity with Their Application to Physiology, and Some Pathological and Medical Observations 175 – 175 . London
  • Fowler , R. 1793 . Experiments and Observations Relative to the Influence Lately Discovered by Galvani and Commonly Called Animal Electricity 58 – 58 . Edinburgh
  • Pfaff , C. 1794 . Abhandlung über die sogenannte thierische Electrizität . Journal der Physik , 8 : 196 – 280 . (pp. 263–4).
  • Vassalli , A. 1799 . Lettre à J. C. Delamétherie sur le galvanisme, et sur l'origine de l'électricité animale . Journal de Physique , 48 : 336 – 339 .
  • Wells . 1795 . Observations on the influence, which incites the muscles of animals to contract in Mr. Galvani's experiments . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , : 260 – 260 . The situation in the 1790s will be understood better if bearing in mind that as late as 1833 Michael Faraday was preoccupied with demonstration of the identity of ‘electricities’ observed in different phenomena; see his Experimental Researches in Electricity 3 vols (London, 1839–1855; reprint: New York, 1965), I, 76–102.
  • Galvani . Commentary , 77 – 78 .
  • Cortambert . 1797 . Extrait d'une mémoire sur le galvanisme . Mémoires de la Societé Medicale d'Emulation , 1 : 232 – 236 .
  • Valli , E. 1792 . Lettres sur l'électricité animale . Journal de Physique , 41 : 66 – 77 . 185–202, 435–7; 42 (1792), 74–5 (p. 77).
  • Wells . 1795 . Observations on the influence, which incites the muscles of animals to contract in Mr. Galvani's experiments . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , : 261 – 262 .
  • Monro , A. 1794 . Experiments Relating to Animal Electricity . Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh , 3 : 231 – 239 . (p. 236).
  • Fowler . 1793 . Experiments and Observations Relative to the Influence Lately Discovered by Galvani and Commonly Called Animal Electricity 47 – 47 . Edinburgh 51.
  • Fowler . 1793 . Experiments and Observations Relative to the Influence Lately Discovered by Galvani and Commonly Called Animal Electricity 56 – 56 . Edinburgh 58
  • Créve , C. 1793 . Beitrage zu Galvani's Versuchen … . Journal der Physik , 7 : 323 – 331 . ‘Extrait … de la découverte du Prof. Créve, sur la nature de l'irritation metallique’, Mémoires de la Societe Medicale d'Emulation, 1 (1797), 236–7.
  • Humboldt , A. 1795 . Ueber die gereizte Muskelfaser, aus einem briefe an Hrn. Blumenbach . Neues Journal der Physik , 2 : 116 – 123 . (pp. 122–3).
  • Humboldt , A. 1796 . Neue Versuche über den Metallreitz … Aus einem Briefe an den Herrn Blumenbach . Neues Journal der Physik , 3 : 165 – 184 . (pp. 177–8).
  • Michaelis , P. 1797 . Ueber die gereizte Muskelfaser . Neues Journal der Physik , 4 : 1 – 27 .
  • Humboldt , A. 1797 . Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen process des lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt Vol. 2 , 42 – 48 . Berlin & Posen in 1 82–88, 213–221.
  • Reinhold , J. 1798 . De Galvanismo Vol. 2 , 72 – 72 . Leipzig II Also see P. Sue, Histoire du galvanisme, 2 vols (Paris, 1802), I, 193.
  • Jadelot , J.Fr.N. 1799 . “ Discours préliminaire ” . In Expériences sur le galvanisme, et en général sur l'irritation des fibres musculaires et nerveuses Edited by: Humboldt , A. i – xxxviii . Paris traduction par J. Fr. N. Jadelot (pp. viii, ix, xxxiv).
  • Humboldt . 1797 . Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen process des lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt Vol. 2 , 462 – 463 . Berlin & Posen in 1
  • Fabbroni , G. 1799 . Sur l'action chimique des différens metaux entr'eux, à la temperature commune de l'atmosphère, et sur l'explication de quelques phénomènes galvaniques . Journal de Physik , 49 : 348 – 357 .
  • Humboldt . 1797 . Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen process des lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt Vol. 2 , 462 – 464 . Berlin & Posen in 1
  • Humboldt . 1797 . Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen process des lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt Vol. 2 , 472 – 475 . Berlin & Posen in 1
  • Humboldt . 1797 . Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen process des lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt Vol. 2 , 355 – 355 . Berlin & Posen in 1
  • Humboldt . 1797 . Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen process des lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt Vol. 2 , 397 – 400 . Berlin & Posen in 1
  • Humboldt . 1797 . Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen process des lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt Vol. 2 , 444 – 445 . Berlin & Posen in 1
  • Humboldt . 1797 . Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen process des lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt Vol. 2 , 452 – 452 . Berlin & Posen in 1
  • Pfaff , C.H. 1799 . Ein Beytrag zu Alex. von Humboldts 2tem Bande der Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser . Nordisches Archiv für Natur- und Arzneywissenschaft , 1 : 17 – 43 .
  • Augustin , F.L. 1803 . Versuch einer vollstandigen systematischen Geschichte der galvanischen Electricitat and ihrer medicinischen Anwendung 36 – 36 . Berlin
  • Augustin , F. 1803 . Versuch einer vollstandigen systematischen Geschichte der galvanischen Electricitat and ihrer medicinischen Anwendung 42 – 42 . Berlin J. W. Ritter, Beweis dass ein bestandiger Galvanismus den Lebenprocess in dem Thierreich begleite (Weimar, 1798), pp. 65, 172.
  • Cavallo . 1795 . A Complete Treatise on Electricity , fourth edition Vol. III , 72 – 72 . London 3 vols
  • Kielmayer , K. 1794 . Versuche uber die sogenannte animalische Electrizitat . Journal der Physik , 8 : 65 – 77 .
  • Halle . 1798 . A la Classe des sciences mathématiques & physiques de l'Institut National, des premières expériences faites en floreal & prairial de l'an 5, par le commission nommée pour examiner & verifier les phénomènes du galvanisme . Journal de Physique , 47 : 392 – 401 . 441–68 (p. 466).
  • Darwin , E. 1794 . Zoonomia Vol. 2 , 65 – 66 . London II
  • Gren . 1792 . Bemerkungen über die sogennante tierische Elektrizität . Journal der Physik , 6 : 408 – 409 .
  • Valli . Experiments on Animal Electricity with Their Application to Physiology, and Some Pathological and Medical Observations 215 – 215 . London Humboldt (footnote 92), 453.
  • Home . 1970 . Electricity and the Nervous Fluid . Journal of the History of Biology , 3 : 235 – 251 .
  • Valli . 1792 . Lettres sur l'électricité animale . Journal de Physique , 41 : 72 – 72 .
  • Valli . 1792 . Lettres sur l'électricité animale . Journal de Physique , 41 : 189 – 189 .
  • Fowler . 1793 . Experiments and Observations Relative to the Influence Lately Discovered by Galvani and Commonly Called Animal Electricity 103 – 105 . Edinburgh
  • Sue . 1802 . Histoire du galvanisme Vol. I , 145 – 145 . Paris 2 vols
  • Caldani , F. 1795 . Lettera le quale si esaminano alcune riflessioni circa le nuove ricerche sulla elettricità animale . Giornale fisico medico , 2 : 3 – 20 . (pp. 13–4); F. Fontana, ‘Articolo di lettera all'Ab. Giuseppe Mangili’, ibid., 4 (1792), 116–18 (p. 118).
  • Carradori , G. 1795 . Lettera sopra l'elettricità animale scritta al Sig. Cav. Felice Fontana . Giornale fisico medico , 3 : 225 – 227 .
  • Bichat , X. 1800 . Recherches physiologiques sur la vie et la mort 393 – 399 . Paris 419–23
  • Valli . 1792 . Lettres sur l'électricité animale . Journal de Physique , 41 : 72 – 74 . 177, 192–5.
  • Créve , C. 1796 . Vom Metallreize, einem neuentdeckten untruglichen Prüfungsmittel des wahren Todes Leipzig
  • Fowler . 1793 . Experiments and Observations Relative to the Influence Lately Discovered by Galvani and Commonly Called Animal Electricity 136 – 139 . Edinburgh 154–6.
  • Fowler . 1793 . Experiments and Observations Relative to the Influence Lately Discovered by Galvani and Commonly Called Animal Electricity 64 – 68 . Edinburgh
  • Humboldt . 1797 . Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen process des lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt Vol. 2 , 22 – 27 . Berlin & Posen in 1
  • In Alexander Mauro's view, Volta had no right to compare his metallic pile to the torpedo (see his The Role of the Voltaic pile in the Galvani-Volta Controversy Concerning Animal vs Metallic Electricity Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 1969 24 140 150 (p. 149)). In fact, Volta based this analogy on his third theory (not the fourth) which was valid for organic conductors too.
  • Sue , J. 1798 . Recherches physiologiques et experiences sur la vitalité . Journal de Physique , 46 : 226 – 235 . (p. 277).
  • See Delamétherie J. Discours préliminaire…Du Galvanisme Journal de Physique. 1798 46 37 44
  • Jadelot . 1799 . “ Discours préliminaire ” . In Expériences sur le galvanisme, et en général sur l'irritation des fibres musculaires et nerveuses Edited by: Humboldt , A. vi – vi . Paris traduction par J. Fr. N. Jadelot italics added.
  • 1796 . Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. III . Monthly Review , 19 : 129 – 129 . italics added.
  • Volta , A. 1800 . On the electricity excited by the mere contact of conducting substances of different kinds . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , : 403 – 431 .
  • Jadelot . 1799 . “ Discours préliminaire ” . In Expériences sur le galvanisme, et en général sur l'irritation des fibres musculaires et nerveuses Edited by: Humboldt , A. v – v . Paris traduction par J. Fr. N. Jadelot
  • Vassalli , A. 1799 . Lettre à J.-C. Delamétherie sur les phénomènes de la torpille . Journal de Physique , 46 : 69 – 72 . (p. 69).
  • Delamétherie , J. 1798 . Du galvanisme . Journal de Physique , 46 : 39 – 44 . 48 (1799), 18–20; 50 (1800), 18–20.
  • Delamétherie , J. 1801 . Du galvanisme . Journal de Physique , 52 : 9 – 11 . (p. 11).
  • Delamétherie , J. 1802 . Du galvanisme . Journal de Physique , 54 : 15 – 19 . (p. 16).
  • Cuvier , F. Rapport , 321 – 321 . E. G. Robertson, ‘Sur le fluide galvanique’, Annales de Chimie 37 (1801), 132–50 (p. 145); N. Gautherot, ‘Mémoire sur le galvanisme’, Annales de Chimie, 39 (1801), 203–10 (p. 204); and A. Vassalli, ‘Extrait d'un ouvrage: Expériences et observations sur le fluide de l'éctromoteur de Volta’, in Cassius, Larcher Daubancourt, and De Saintot, Précis succinct des principaux phénomènes du galvanisme (Paris, 1803), p. 5.
  • Aldini , G. 1803 . An Account of the Late Improvements in Galvanism 3 – 18 . London
  • Lehot , C. 1801 . Extrait d'un mémoire du citoyen Lehot, sur le galvanisme . Annales de Chimie , 38 : 42 – 65 .
  • Buntzen , T. 1803 . Verschiedene Galvanische Versuche mit ausserordentlich machtigen Säulen . Annales der Physik , 15 : 340 – 349 .
  • Buntzen , T. 1807 . Eine galvaniche Batterie aus Froschpraparaten . Annales der Physik , 25 : 155 – 157 .
  • Humboldt , A. and Gay-Lussac , J. 1805 . Expériences sur la Torpille . Annales de Chimie , 56 : 15 – 23 . (p. 23).
  • Young , T. Lecture notebooks , London : University College . MS Add 13, 20/21r.
  • Wollaston , W. 1809 . On the Agency of Electricity on Animal Secretions . Philosophical Magazine , 33 : 488 – 490 .
  • Home , E. 1809 . Hints on the Subject of animal Secretions . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , : 385 – 391 .
  • Ritter , J. 1801 . Versuche und Bemerkungen über den Galvanismus der Voltaischen Batterie . Annales der Physik , 7 : 431 – 446 . 447–84.
  • See Aldini G. An Account of the Late Improvements in Galvanism London 1803 54 87
  • Vassalli , Giulio and Rossi . 1802 . Rapport presenté à la Classe des Sciences exactes de l'Academie de Turin le 27 Thermidor ‘Sur les expériences galvaniques faites les 22 et 26 du même mois, sur la tête et le tronc de trois hommes, peu de temps après leur decapitation . Journal de Physique , 55 : 286 – 296 .
  • Heidmann , J. 1802 . Resultate aus meinen Versuchen mit der zusammengesetzen ungleichartigen Metallverbindung, oder mit der Voltaischen Säule . Annalen der Physik , 10 : 50 – 56 . (p. 56).
  • Tourdes , J. 1802 . Aus einem Briefe an Volta . Annalen der Physik , 10 : 499 – 499 . Gilbert, footnote, ibid., 499–500.
  • Heidmann , J. 1804 . Nichtigkeit der Versuche von Tourdes und Circaud, über die Reizbarkeit des Faserstoffs durch galvanische Electricität . Annalen der Physik , 17 : 1 – 14 . (pp. 13–4).
  • Heidmann , J. 1805 . Eintheilung der festen und flüssigen Leiter einer galvanischen Kette, nach dem Grade ihrer galvanischen Action und ihres chemischen Wirkungsvermögens . Annalen der Physik , 21 : 85 – 107 . (p. 107).
  • Valli . 1792 . Lettres sur l'électricité animale . Journal de Physique , 41 : 66 – 66 . italics added.
  • See Intorno all'influenza dell'elettricità nel moto muscolare Giornale fisico medico 1792 1 280 280
  • Volta . 1792 . Memoria prima sull' elettricità animale . Giornale fisico medico , 2 : 15 – 15 . italics added.
  • Galvani . Commentary , 79 – 79 .
  • 1792 . Ragguaglio delle sperienze del Sig. Luigi Galvani … estratto da una lettera diretta al Sig. Conte Prospero Balbo . Giornale fisico medico , 2 : 94 – 109 . (p. 95).
  • Swammerdam , J. 1758 . The Book of Nature or, the History of Insects 127 – 127 . London translated from Dutch and Latin by Thomas Floyd
  • Galvani on Electricity , 14 – 14 . footnote 107, p. 76.
  • See Valli E. Lettres sur l'électricité animale Journal de Physique 1792 41 95 95
  • Humboldt . 1797 . Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen process des lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt Vol. 2 , 361 – 361 . Berlin & Posen in 1 See also Charles Caldwell, ‘Appendix’, in J. F. Blumenbach, Elements of Physiology, translated from Latin by C. Caldwell (Philadelphia, 1795), p. 217.
  • Kipnis , N. 1985 . Animal Electricity in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century . part of this paper was presented at the Midwest Junto Meeting . April 1985 , Minneapolis. unpublished

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