Assessment of Physical Education Time and After-School Outdoor Time in Elementary and Middle School Students in South Mexico City: The Dilemma between Physical Fitness and the Adverse Health Effects of Outdoor Pollutant Exposure

References

• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) . 1992 . “ Summary of Selected New Information on Effects of Ozone on Health and Vegetation ” . In Supplement to Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and Other Photochemical Pollutants , Research Triangle Park, NC : EPA . EPA Pub no 600/8–88/105F
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) . 1996 . Air Quality Criteria for Paniculate Matter: Vol I-III. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development , Research Triangle Park, NC : EPA . EPA Pub no 600P-95/0001 cF
   Google Scholar
• Dockery , D W , Speizer , F E Stram , D O . 1989 . Effects of inhalable particles on respiratory health of children . Am Rev Respir Dis , 139 : 587 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope , C A and Dockery , D W . 1992 . Acute health effects of PM10 pollution on symptomatic and asymptomatic children . Am Rev Respir Dis , 145 : 1123 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folinsbee , L J . 1993 . Human health effects of air pollution . Environ Health Perpect , 100 : 45 – 56 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinter , A , Rudnai , P Sarkany , E . 1996 . Air pollution and children's respiratory morbidity in the Tata area, Hungary . Cent Eur J Public Health , 4 : 17 – 20 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ulmer , C , Kopp , M Ihorst , G . 1997 . Effects of ambient ozone exposures during the spring and summer of 1994 on pulmonary function of school children . Pediatr Pulmonol , 23 : 344 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbey , D E , Nishino , N McDonnell , W F . 1999 . Long-term inhalable particles and other air pollutants related to mortality in nonsmokers . Am J Respir Crit Care Med , 159 : 373 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tellez-Rojo , M M , Romieu , I Ruiz-Velasco , S . 2000 . Daily respiratory mortality and PM10 pollution in Mexico City: importance of considering place of death . Eur Respir J , 16 : 391 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilliland , F D , McConnell , R Peters , J . 1999 . A theoretical basis for investigating ambient air pollution and children's respiratory health . Environ Health Perpect , 107 : 403 – 07 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters , J M , Avol , E Navidi , W . 1999 . A study of twelve Southern California communities with differing levels and types of air pollution. I. Prevalence of respiratory morbidity . Am J Respir Crit Care Med , 159 : 760 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calderón-Garcidueñas , L , Mora-Tiscareño , A Chung , C J . 2000 . Exposure to air pollution is associated with lung hyperinflation in healthy children and adolescents in southwest Mexico City: a pilot study . Inhal Toxicol , 12 : 101 – 25 .
   Google Scholar
• Geyh , A S , Xue , J Ozkaynak , H . 2000 . The Harvard Southern California Chronic Ozone Exposure Study: assessing ozone exposure of grade-school-age children in two Southern California communities . Environ Health Perpect , 108 : 265 – 70 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bravo , H , Torres , R and Sosa , R . 1988 . Ozone and its night time concentrations in the southern Mexico City metropolitan area . Geofis Int , 27 : 83 – 98 .
   Google Scholar
• Cicero-Fernandez , P , Thistlewaite , W A Falcon , Y I . 1993 . TSP, PM10 and PM10/TSP ratios in the Mexico City metropolitan area: a temporal and spatial approach . J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol , 3 : 1 – 14 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blake , D R and Rowland , F S . 1995 . Urban leakage of liquefied petroleum gas and its impact on Mexico City air quality . Science , 269 : 953 – 56 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baez , A P , Belmont , R and Padilla , H . 1995 . Measurements of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde in the atmosphere of Mexico City . Environ Pollut , 89 : 163 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meneses , F , Romieu , I Ramirez , M . 1999 . A survey of personal exposures to benzene in Mexico City . Arch Environ Health , 54 : 359 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edgerton , S A , Bian , X Doran , J C . 1999 . Particulate air pollution in Mexico City: a collaborative research project . J Air Waste Manag Assoc , 49 : 1221 – 29 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Castillejos , M , Gold , D R Damokosh , Al . 1995 . Acute effects of ozone on the pulmonary function of exercising schoolchildren from Mexico City . Am J Respir Crit Care Med , 152 : 1501 – 07 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold , D R , Damokosh , Al Pope , C A . 1999 . Particulate and ozone pollutant effects on the respiratory function of children in southwest Mexico City . Epidemiology , 10 : 8 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loomis , D , Castillejos , M Gold , D R . 1999 . Air pollution and infant mortality in Mexico City . Epidemiology , 10 : 118 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , F J , Overton , J H Jr. Jaskot , R H . 1985 . A model of regional uptake of gaseous pollutants in the lung. I. The sensitivity of the uptake of ozone in the human lung to lower respiratory tract secretions and exercise . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 79 : 11 – 27 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dockery , D W and Brunekreef , B . 1996 . Longitudinal studies of air pollution effects on lung function . Am J Respir Crit Care Med , 154 : 5250 – 56 .
   Google Scholar
• Burri , P . 1997 . “ Postnatal development and growth ” . In The Lung: Scientific Foundations , Edited by: Crystal , R and West , J . Philadelphia, PA : Raven Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mercer , R R , Russell , M L and Crapo , J D . 1994 . Alveolar septal structure in different species . J Appl Physiol , 77 : 1060 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harkema , J R , Plopper , C G Hyde , D M . 1993 . Response of the macaque bronchiolar epithelium to ambient concentrations of ozone . Am J Pathol , 143 : 857 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang , L Y , Huang , Y Stockstill , B L . 1992 . Epithelial injury and interstitial fibrosis in the proximal alveolar regions of rats chronically exposed to a simulated pattern of urban ambient ozone . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol , 115 : 241 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikula , K J , Avila , K J Griffith , W C . 1997 . Lung tissue responses and sites of particle retention differ between rats and Cynomologus monkeys exposed chronically to diesel exhaust and coal dust . Fundam Appl Toxicol , 37 : 37 – 53 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Calderón-Garcidueñas , L , Valencia-Salazar , G Rodriguez-Alcaraz , A . 2001 . Ultrastructural nasal pathology in children chronically and sequentially exposed to air pollutants . Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol , 24 : 132 – 38 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fry , F A and Black , A . 1973 . Regional deposition and clearance of particles in the human nose . J Aerosol Sci , 4 : 113 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Schwab , J A and Zenkel , M . 1998 . Filtration of particulates in the human nose . Laryngoscope , 108 : 120 – 12 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1997 . Environmental tobacco smoke: a hazard to children. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Environmental Health . Pediatrics , 99 : 639 – 42 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Witschi , H , Joad , J P and Pinkerton , K E . 1997 . The toxicology of environmental tobacco smoke . Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol , 37 : 29 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunzli , N , Lurman , F Segal , M . 1996 . Reliability of lifetime residential history and activity measures as elements of cumulative ambient ozone exposure assessment . J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol , 6 : 289 – 310 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Peters , J M , Avol , E Gauderman , W J . 1999 . A study of twelve Southern California communities with differing levels and types of air pollution. II. Effects on pulmonary function . Am J Respir Crit Care Med , 159 : 768 – 75 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francis , K T . 1999 . Status of year 2000 health goals for physical activity and fitness . Phys Ther , 79 : 405 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vargas , L A and Casillas , L E . 1992 . Curso Taller introductorio sobre indicadores antropométricos para evaluar el estado de nutrición en adultos. [Anthropometric indicators to evaluate the nutritional status in adults.] VII Reunión Anual AMMFEN México
   Google Scholar
• Gómez-Peresmitré , G and Saucedo-Molina , T . 1997 . Validez diagnóstica del IMC (indice de masa corporal) en una muestra de escolares preadolescentes y adolescentes mexicanos. [Diagnostic validation of the BMI (body mass index) in a cohort of Mexican preadolescents and adolescents.] . Acta Pediatr Mex , 18 : 103 – 10 .
   Google Scholar
• Weston , A T , Petosa , R and Pate , R R . 1997 . Validation of an instrument for measurement of physical activity in youth . Med Sci Sports Exerc , 29 : 138 – 43 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fajardo-Gutierrez , A , Navarrete-Martínez , A Reynoso-García , M . 1997 . Malignant neoplasms in children attending Social Security Hospitals in Mexico City . Med Pediatr Oncol , 29 : 208 – 12 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Janssen , N A , Hoek , G Harssema , H . 1997 . Childhood exposure to PM10: relation between personal, classroom, and outdoor concentrations . Occup Environ Med , 54 : 888 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rojas-Bracho , L , Suh , H H and Koutrakis , P . 2000 . Relationships among personal, indoor, and outdoor fine and coarse particle concentrations for individuals with COPD . J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol , 10 : 294 – 306 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilson , W E , Mage , D T and Grant , L D . 2000 . Estimating separately personal exposure to ambient and nonambient particulate matter for epidemiology and risk assessment: why and how . J Air Waste Manag Assoc , 50 : 1167 – 83 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oglesby , L , Kunzli , N Roosli , M . 2000 . Validity of ambient levels of fine particles as surrogate for personal exposure to outdoor air pollution—results of the European EXPOLIS-EAS Study . J Air Waste Manag Assoc , 50 : 1251 – 61 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Spier , C E , Little , D E Trim , S C . 1992 . Activity patterns in elementary and high school students exposed to oxidant pollution . J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol , 2 : 277 – 93 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gold , D R , Allen , G Damokosh , A . 1996 . Comparison of outdoor and classroom ozone exposures for school children in Mexico City . J Air Waste Manag Assoc , 46 : 335 – 42 .
   Google Scholar
• Kuri-Morales , P , Cravioto , P Hoy , M . 1997 . Illegal sales of cigarettes to minors—Mexico City, Mexico, 1997 . MMWR , 46 ( 20 ) : 440 – 44 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fernandez-Garate , I H , Escobedo de la Peña , J Hernandez-Tamayo , D . 1997 . Tobacco consumption in the population insured by Mexican Institute of Social Security . Salud Publica Mex , 39 : 125 – 32 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stebbins , K R . 1994 . Making a killing south of the border: transnational cigarette companies in Mexico and Guatemala . Soc Sci Med , 38 : 105 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avila-Curiel , A , Shamah-Levy , T Galindo-Gomez , C . 1998 . Child malnutrition in the Mexican rural setting . Salud Publica Mex , 40 : 150 – 60 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hernandez , B , Gortmaker , S L Colditz , G A . 1999 . Association of obesity with physical activity, television programs and other forms of video viewing among children in Mexico City . Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord , 23 : 845 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerman-Garber , I , Villa , A R Martinez , C L . 1999 . The prevalence of obesity and its determinants in urban and rural aging Mexican populations . Obes Res , 7 : 402 – 06 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koren , H S . 1997 . Environmental risk factors in atopic asthma . Int Arch Allergy Immunol , 113 : 65 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abramson , M J and Walters , E H . 2000 . The epidemic of asthma: too much allergen or not enough infection? . Med J Aust , 172 : 119 – 21 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ball , T M , Castro-Rodriguez , J A Griffith , K A . 2000 . Siblings, daycare attendance, and the risk of asthma and wheezing during childhood . N Engl J Med , 343 : 538 – 43 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Committee of the Environmental and Occupational Health Assembly of the American Thoracic Society (ATS) . 1996 . Health effects of outdoor air pollution, Part 1 . Am Respir Crit Care Med , 153 : 3 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiNubile , N A . 1993 . Youth fitness—problems and solutions . Prev Med , 22 : 589 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuntzleman , C T . 1993 . Childhood fitness: what is happening? What needs to be done? . Prev Med , 22 : 520 – 32 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pope , C A . 2000 . Epidemiology of fine particulate air pollution and human health: biological mechanisms and who's at risk? . Environ Health Perspect , 108 : 713 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• http://www.ine.gob.mxLey General del Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección al Ambiente, 14 April 2000
   Google Scholar