Is the third trochanter of the femur a developmental anomaly, a functional marker, or an evolutionary adaptation?

References

• Lozanoff S, Sciulli PW, Schneider KN. Third trochanter incidence and metric trait covariation in the human femur. J Anat. 1985;143:149–159. PubMed PMID: 3870721; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1166433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manninger J, Bosch U, Cserháti P, et al. Internal fixation of femoral neck fractures: an atlas. New York, USA: Springer Science & Business Media; 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Dollo L. Note sur la présence chez les Oiseaux du "troisième trochanter" des Dinosauriens et sur la fonction de celui-ci. Bull. 1883;2(2):12–20.
   Google Scholar
• Bolanowski W, Smiszkiewicz-Skwarska A, Polguj M, et al. The occurrence of the third trochanter and its correlation to certain anthropometric parameters of the human femur. Folia Morphol (Warsz). 2005;64(3):168–175.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chhaparwal R, Bhadkaria V, Chhaparwal N. Incidence of third trochanter/crista glutei in human femora in Central Indian population. J Krishna Inst Medical Sci Univ. 2017 01/01;6:57–62.
   Google Scholar
• Olivier G. Le femur Pratique antropologique. Paris: Vigot frères; 1960. p. 236–244.
   Google Scholar
• Ajita R, Jaishree A, G TS, et al. The third trochanter in human femur: a case report. JEMDS. 2015;4(41):7224–7228.
   Google Scholar
• Nayak G, Das SR, Panda SK, et al. The third trochanter of femur - an anatomical study. IJCRR. 2020;12(23):126–128.
   Google Scholar
• Finnegan MF. Variants of the Femur Research Report 14: Bibliography of human and non-human, nonmetric variation. 1974.
   Google Scholar
• Appleton AB. On the hypotrochanteric fossa and accessory adductor groove of the primate femur. J Anat. 1922;56(Pt 3-4):295–306. PubMed PMID: 17103951; eng.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aiello L, Dean C. An introduction to human evolutionary anatomy. 1st ed. London: Academic Press; 1990.
   Google Scholar
• Borsuk-Bialynicka M. Studies on the pleistocene rhinoceros coelodonta antiquitatis (blumenbach). Palaeontologia Polonica. 1973;29(35):1–94.
   Google Scholar
• Dwight T. The significance of the third trochanter and of similar bony processes in man. J Anat Physiol. 1889;24(Pt 1):61–68. PubMed PMID: 17231836; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1328026.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cimen M, Basaloglu H. A morphometric study on the third trochanter in the human femur. Man India. Jan-Jun. 2002;82(1-2):23–29. PubMed PMID: WOS:000179329300004; English.
   Google Scholar
• Sadaf S, Dasegowda G, Belaguthi PPK, Third year MBBS Student, ESIC Medical College & PGIMSR, Rajajinagar, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Incidence of third trochanter in human femora and it’s morphometry in Indian population. IJAR. 2021;9(1.3):7890–7895.
   Google Scholar
• Aziz N, Nadeem T, Mubarik A. A study of third trochanter in femora of pakistani population. Ann King Edw Med Univ. 2020;2(1&2):8–11.
   Google Scholar
• Hrdlička A. The gluteal ridge and gluteal tuberosities (3rd trochanters). Am J Phys Anthropol. 1937;23(2):127–198.
   Google Scholar
• Dixon AF. Ossification of the third trochanter in man. J Anat Physiol. 1896;30(Pt 4):502–504. PubMed PMID: 17232209; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1327769.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Finnegan M. Non-metric variation of the infracranial skeleton. J Anat. 1978;125(Pt 1):23–37. PubMed PMID: 632214; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1235564. eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holtby JRD. A note on some human bones from an ancient burial ground in Dublin Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy Section B: Biological, geological, and chemical science. 191432:34–47.
   Google Scholar
• Osborn HF. Present problems in evolution and heredity. 1893.
   Google Scholar
• Costa P. II terzo trocantere, la fossa ipotrocanterica, la cresta ipotro- canterica nel femore dell’Uomo. Arch Antrop Etnol, Firenze. 1890;20(1):269–304.
   Google Scholar
• Branford WW, Benson GV, Ma L, et al. Characterization of Hoxa-10/Hoxa-11 transheterozygotes reveals functional redundancy and regulatory interactions. Dev Biol. 2000; 224(2):373–387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Favier B, Rijli FM, Fromental-Ramain C, et al. Functional cooperation between the non-paralogous genes Hoxa-10 and Hoxd-11 in the developing forelimb and axial skeleton. Development. 1996;122(2):449–460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahba GM, Hostikka SL, Carpenter EM. The paralogous hox genes Hoxa10 and Hoxd10 interact to pattern the mouse hindlimb peripheral nervous system and skeleton. Dev Biol. 2001;231(1):87–102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shields GE, Whitcomb MB, Vaughan B, et al. Abnormal imaging findings of the femoral third trochanter in 20 horses. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2015;56(5):466–473.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geissbuhler U, Busato A, Ueltschi G. Abnormal bone scan findings of the equine ischial tuberosity and third trochanter. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 1998;39(6):572–577.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gui Q, Xu C, Zhuang L, et al. A new rat model of bone cancer pain produced by rat breast cancer cells implantation of the shaft of femur at the third trochanter level. Cancer Biol Ther. 2013;14(2):193–199. PubMed PMID: 23254954; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3572001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang H-H, Wang Y-XJ, Sheng H, et al. Fossa trochanterica of the proximal femur in rabbits: An anatomic structure for potential misinterpretation on magnetic resonance images. Acta Radiol. 2009;50(2):212–216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smuts MM, Bezuidenhout AJ. Osteology of the pelvic limb of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Onderstepoort J Vet Res. 1994;61(1):51–66. PubMed PMID: 7898898; eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milne N, O’Higgins P. Scaling of form and function in the xenarthran femur: a 100-fold increase in body mass is mitigated by repositioning of the third trochanter. Proc Biol Sci. 2012;279(1742):3449–3456. PubMed PMID: 22673355; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3396894.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appleton AB. The muscles and nerves of the post-axial region of the tetrapod thigh: Part II. J Anat. 1928;62(Pt 4):401–438. PubMed PMID: 17104202; eng.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lovejoy CO, Suwa G, Spurlock L, et al. The pelvis and femur of Ardipithecus ramidus: the emergence of upright walking. Science. 2009;326(5949):71.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sargis EJ. Functional morphology of the hindlimb of tupaiids (Mammalia, Scandentia) and its phylogenetic implications. J Morphol. 2002;254(2):149–185. PubMed PMID: 12353299; eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Díaz-Berenguer E, Houssaye A, Badiola A, et al. The hind limbs of sobrarbesiren cardieli (Eocene, Northeastern Spain) and new insights into the locomotion capabilities of the Quadrupedal Sirenians. J Mammal Evol. 2020;27(4):649–675.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greiner TM. Biomechanics of the primate hindlimb and the evolution of human locomotion. Binghamton, NY: State University of New York; 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Akgun ZC. The variations of the proximal femurs belong to the byzantine period. Uludağ Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi. 2009;35(3):127–130.
   Google Scholar
• Payne R, Crompton R, Isler K, et al. Morphological analysis of the hindlimb in apes and humans. I. Muscle architecture. J Anat. 2006;208(6):709–724.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown JL. Morphological variation of the proximal femur in selected skeletal remains. Kansas, USA: Wichita State University, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences; 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Hogervorst T, Vereecke EE. Evolution of the human hip. Part 1: the osseous framework. J Hip Preserv Surg. 2014;1(2):39–45. PubMed PMID: 27011802; eng.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ghosh SS, Vasudeva N. Incidence of third trochanter and hypotrochanteric fossa in human femora in Indian population. OA Case Reports. 2014;3(2):14.
   Google Scholar
• Rajad RR, Romi S. A study on the occurrence of human femoral third tracheate. Indian J Clin Anat Physiol. 2017;4(3):316–318.
   Google Scholar
• Sylvia S, Ahmed MK, Jainapur P, Associate Professor, Department of Anatomy, MRMC, Kalaburagi, Karnataka, India. Third trocanter of human femora in north karnataka region. IJAR. 2015;3(2):1011–1014.
   Google Scholar
• Muthukiimaravel N, Manjunath KY. A study on occurrence of third trochanter in the femora in northern Tamil Nadu region. Natl J Clin Anat. 2015;4(4):186–189.
   Google Scholar
• Gurumayum TKS, Subhalakshmi W, Matum SM. A study of the incidence of the third trochanter of femur at RIMS. J Anat Soc India. 2017; 66:S50.
   Google Scholar
• Bumiiller J. Das menschliche Femur nebst Beitriigen zur Kenntnis der Affenfemora. Munich: Gesellschaft für Naturwissenschaften und Psychologie; 1899.
   Google Scholar
• Faruqi NA. The Femur. Chapter 12th in Human Osteology. 2nd Ed. New Delhi: CBS Publishers; 2006. p. 114.
   Google Scholar
• Nikolova A, Stanev S, Hamdi S, et al. Trochanter tertius incidence in a bulgarian population. Sci Technol. 2018;8(1):112–115.
   Google Scholar
• Cunningham C, Scheuer L, Black S. Chapter 12 - The lower limb In Cunningham C, Scheuer L, Black S, editors. Developmental Juvenile Osteology (Second edition). San Diego: Academic Press; 2016. p. 385–472.
   Google Scholar
• Stirland AJ. Femoral non-metric traits reconsidered. Anthropologie. 1962;34(3):249–252.
   Google Scholar
• Pittard E, Manuila LAM. Troisième trochanter et fosse hypotrochantérienne chez 500 fémurs humains (250 de chaque sexe) provenant de la région de Genève.Caractères fonctionnels ou caractères reversifs? Bulletin de la Société suisse d’anthropologie et d’ethnologie. 1946;23:10–11.
   Google Scholar
• Bartoska R, Baca V, Kachlik D, et al. The correlation between muscles insertions and topography of break lines in pertrochanteric fractures: a comprehensive anatomical approach of complex proximal femur injuries. Surg Radiol Anat. 2013;35(10):957–962. PubMed PMID: 23625071; eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman DE, Raichlen DA, Pontzer H, et al. The human gluteus maximus and its role in running. J Exp Biol. 2006;209(Pt 11):2143–2155. PubMed PMID: 16709916; eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buxton LH. Platymeria and platycnemia. J Anat. 1938; 73(Pt 1):31–36. PubMed PMID: 17104749; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1252529. eng.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Townsley W. Platymeria. J Pathol Bacteriol. 1946;58(1):85–88.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Muizon C, Mcdonald HG, Salas R, et al. The youngest species of the aquatic sloth Thalassocnus and a reassessment of the relationships of the nothrothere sloths (Mammalia: Xenarthra). J Vertebr Paleontol. 2004;24(2):387–397.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard A, Giannoudis PV. Proximal femoral fractures: issues and challenges. Injury. 2012;43(12):1975–1977. PubMed PMID: 23036903; eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu F, Jiang C, Shen J, et al. Preoperative predictors for mortality following hip fracture surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Injury. 2012;43(6):676–685. PubMed PMID: 21683355; eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Gerven DP. The contribution of size and shape variation to patterns of sexual dimorphism of the human femur. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1972;37(1):49–60. PubMed PMID: 5039737; eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar