Fluid Dynamic Structures in a Fire Environment Observed in Laboratory-Scale Experiments

REFERENCES

• Adrian , R.J. 1988 . Review of particle image velocimetry research at the Symposium on Optical Methods in Flow and Particle Diagnostics, 6th International Congress on Application of Lasers and Electro-optics . Optics and Lasers in Engineering , 9 , 1561 – 1576 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , H.E. 1969 . Heat Transfer and Fire Spread . USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper INT-69 .
   Google Scholar
• Andrews , P.L. 1986 . BEHAVE: Fire Behavior Prediction System—BURN Subsystem, Part 1 . USDA Forest Serv., Intermountain Res. Sta., Ogden, UT .
   Google Scholar
• Andrews , P.L. , and Queen , L.P. 2001 . Fire modeling and information system technology . Inter. J. Wildland Fire , 10 , 343 – 352 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant , R.A. 2005 . Particle image velocimetry measurements of buoyancy induced flow through a doorway . NISTIR , 7252 .
   Google Scholar
• Bryant , R.A. 2009a . A comparison of gas velocity measurements in a full-scale enclosure fire . Fire Safety Journal , 44 , 793 – 800 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant , R.A. 2009b . The application of stereoscopic PIV to measure the flow of air into an enclosure containing a fire . Exp. Fluids , 47 , 295 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrier , G.F. , Fendell , F.E. , and Wolff , M.F. 1991 . Wind-aided firespread across arrays of discrete fuel elements. I. Theory . Combust. Sci. Technol. , 75 , 31 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catchpole , T. , and de Mestre , N. 1986 . Physical models for a spreading line fire . Australian Forestry , 49 , 102 – 111 .
   Google Scholar
• Clark , T.L. , Radke , L. , Coen , J. , and Middleton , D. 1999. Analysis of small-scale convective dynamics in a crown fire using infrared video camera imagery. J. Appl. Meteorol. , 38, 1401–1420.
   Google Scholar
• Clements , C.B. , Zhong , S. , Bian , X. , Heilman , W.E. , and Byun , D.W. 2008 . First observations of turbulence generated by grass fires . J. Geophy. Res. , 113 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , J.D. 1986 . Estimating Fire Behavior with FIRECAST: User's Manual . USDA Forest Serv. Gen. Techn. Report PSW-90 , Berkeley , CA .
   Google Scholar
• Countryman , C.M. , and Philpot , C. 1970 . Physical Characteristics of Chamise as a Wildland Fuel . USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper PSW-66 .
   Google Scholar
• Cruz , M. 2006 . Predicting the ignition of crown fuels above a spreading surface fire. Part I: Model idealization . Inter. J. Wildland Fire , 15 , 47 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finney , M.A. 1998 . Farsite Users Guide and Technical Documentation . USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper RMRS-RP-4 .
   Google Scholar
• Finney , M.A. , Cohen , J.D. , Grenfell , I.C. , and Yedinak , K.M. 2006 . Experiments on fire spread in discontinuous fuelbeds . Forest Ecol. Mgmt. , 234 , S99 .
   Google Scholar
• Frandsen , W.H. 1991 . Burning rate of smoldering peat . Northwest Science , 65 , 166 – 172 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glass , M. , and Kennedy , I.M. 1977 . An improved seeding method for high temperature laser doppler velocimetry . Combust. Flame , 29 , 333 – 335 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grishin , A.M. 1992 . Matematicheskoye modelirovaniye lesnykh pozharov i novyye sposoby bor'by s nimi [Mathematical modeling of forest fires and new methods of fighting them]. Novosibirsk, Russia, “Nauka” Publishers, Siberian Division, 408 pp. (Russian) .
   Google Scholar
• Groff , E.G. 1987 . An experimental evaluation of an entrainment flame-propagation model . Combustion and Flame , 67 , 153 – 162 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilbruner , M.W. 1988 . Fire behavior modeling for burn prescription specification. Masters Thesis, Colorado State University .
   Google Scholar
• Linn , R. , Reisner , J. , Colman , J.J. , and Winterkamp , J. 2002 . Studying wildfire behavior using FIRETEC . Inter. J. Wildland Fire , 11 , 233 – 246 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long , E. , Hargrave , G. , Jarvis , S. , Justham , T. , and Halliwell , N. 2006 . Characterization of the interaction between toroidal vortex structures and flame front propagation . J. Phys. , Conference Series , 45 , 104 – 111 .
   Google Scholar
• Marcelli , T. 2004 . Fire spread across pine needle fuel beds: Characterization of temperature and velocity distributions within the fire plume . Inter. J. Wildland Fire , 13 , 37 – 48 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCaffrey , J. 1979 . Purely buoyant diffusion flames: Some experimental results . Center for Fire Research, National Engineering Laboratory, National Bureau of Standards , NBSIR , 79 – 1910 .
   Google Scholar
• McCaffrey , B.J. , and Heskestad , G. 1967 . Robust bidirectional low-velocity probe for flame and fire application . Combustion and Flame , 26 , 125 – 127 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarter , R.J. , and Broido , A. 1965 . Radiative and convective energy from wood crib fires . Pyrodynamics , 2 , 65 – 85 .
   Google Scholar
• Mell , W. , Jenkins , M.A. , Gould , J. , and Cheney , P. 2007 . A physics-based approach to modeling grassland fires . Inter. J. Wildland Fire , 16 , 1 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melling , A. , and Whitelaw , J.H. 1973 . Seeding of gas flows for laser anemometry . DISA Information , 15 , 5 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Meroney , R.N. 2007 . Fires in porous media: Natural and urban canopies . In Gayev , Y.A. and Hunt , J.C.R. (Eds.) Flow and Transport Processes with Complex Obstructions , NATO Science Series 236 . the Netherlands , Springer , pp. 271 – 310 .
   Google Scholar
• Merril , D.F. , and Alexander , M.E. 1987 . Glossary of Forest Fire Management Term, , 4th ed. , Natl. Res. Counc. Can., Can. Comm. For. Fire Management, Ottawa, Ont. Publ. NRCC No. 26516 , p. 91 .
   Google Scholar
• Muniz , L. , and Mungal , M.G. 2001 . Effects of heat release and buoyancy on flow structure and entrainment in turbulent nonpremixed flames . Combustion and Flame , 126 , 1402 – 1420 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson , R.J. 2001. Water relations of forest fuels. In Johnson , E.A. and Miyanishi , K. (Eds.) Forest Fires: Behavior and Ecological Effects , Academic Press , San Diego , CA, pp. 79–149.
   Google Scholar
• Ottmar , R.D. , Sandberg , D.V. , Riccardi C.L., and Prichard , S.J. 2007 . An overview of the fuel characteristic classification system—Quantifying, classifying, and creating fuelbeds for resource planning . Can. J. Forest Res. , 37 , 2383 – 2393 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons , R.A. 2006 . FUEL3-D: A Spatially Explicit Fractal Fuel Distribution Model . In Andrews , P.L. and Butler , B.W. (Comps.) (Eds.) , Fuels Management—How to Measure Success: Conference Proceedings , USDA Forest Serv. Proc. RMRS-P-41, Fort Collins, CO, pp. 253–272 .
   Google Scholar
• Pastor , E. , Zarate , L. , Planas , E. , and Arnaldos , J. 2003 . Mathematical models and calculation systems for wildland fire behavior . Progress in Energy and Combustion Science , 29 , 139 – 153 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pisaric , M.F.J. 2002 . Long-distance transport of terrestrial plant material by convection resulting from forest fire . Journal of Paleolimnology , 28 , 349 – 354 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitts , W.M. 1991 . Wind effects on fires . Progress in Energy and Combustion Science , 17 , 83 – 134 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyne , S.J. , Andrews , P.L. , and Laven , R.J. 1996 . Introduction to Wildland Fire, ed. , 2nd , Wiley , New York .
   Google Scholar
• Raffel , M. , Willert , C.E. , Werely , S.T. , and Kompenhans , J. 1998 . Particle Image Velocimetry: A Practical Guide, , 2nd ed. , Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg .
   Google Scholar
• Reuss , D.L. , Bardsley , M. , Felton , P.G. , Landreth , C.C. , and Adrian , R.J. 1990 . Velocity, Vorticity, and Strain Rate Ahead of a Flame Measured in an Engine using Particle Image Velocimetry . SAE Tech. Paper Ser. 900053, SAE Publications Group, Warrendale, PA .
   Google Scholar
• Rothermel , R.C. 1972 . A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in wildland fuels. USAA Forest Serv. Res. Paper INT-115.
   Google Scholar
• Rothermel , R.C. 1983 . How to Predict the Spread and Intensity of Forest and Range Fires , USDA Forest Serv., Intermountain Forest and Range Exp. Sta .
   Google Scholar
• Rothermel , R.C. , and Philpot , C.W. 1973 . Fire in wildland management: Predicting changes in chaparral flammability . Journal of Forestry , 71 , 640 – 643 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun , L. 2006 . Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of Fire Behavior in Live Fuels . Doctoral dissertation, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA .
   Google Scholar
• Sun , L. , Zhou , X. , Mahalingam , S. , and Weise , D.R. 2006 . Comparison of burning characteristics of live and dead chaparral fuels . Combustion and Flame , 144 , 349 – 359 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tachajapong , W. 2008 . Understanding Crown Fire Initiation via Experimental and Computational Modeling . Doctoral dissertation, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , S.W. , Wotton , B.M. , Alexander , M.E. , and Dalrymple , G.N. 2004 . Variation in wind and crown fire behavior in a northern jack pine-black spruce forest . Can. J. Forest Res. , 34 , 1561 – 1576 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viegas , D.X. 2004 . On the existence of a steady state regime for slope and wind driven fires . Inter. J. Wildland Fire , 13 , 101 – 117 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber , R.O. 1991 . Modelling fire spread through fuel beds . Progress in Energy and Combustion Science , 17 , 67 – 82 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weise , D.R. , Zhou , X. , Sun , L. , and Mahalingam , S. 2005 . Fire spread in chaparral-‘go or no-go’ . Inter. J. Wildland Fires , 14 , 99 – 106 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams , F.A. 2008a . Mechanistic aspects of the scaling of fires and explosions . In Saito , K. (Ed.), Progress in Scale Modeling , the Netherlands , Springer , pp. 29 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• Williams , F.A. 2008b . Modeling of combustion phenomena . In Saito , K. (Ed.), Progress in Scale Modeling , the Netherlands , Springer , pp. 179 – 195 .
   Google Scholar
• Wolff , M.F. , Carrier , G.F. , and Fendell , F.E. 1991 . Wind-aided firespread across arrays of discrete fuel elements. II. Experiment . Combust. Sci. Technol. , 77 , 261 – 289 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou , M. , and Garner , C.P. 1995. Flame Propagation and Laminar Burning Velocity Measurements in a Cylindrical Combustion Chamber using Particle Image Velocimetry . SAE Tech. Paper Ser. 952458, SAE Publications Group, Warrendale, PA.
   Google Scholar
• Zhou , X. , Mahalingam , S. , and Weise , D.R. 2005 . Modeling of marginal burning state of fire spread in live chaparral shrub fuel bed . Combustion and Flame , 143 , 183 – 198 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou , X. , Mahalingam , S. , and Weise , D.R. 2007 . Experimental study and large eddy simulation of effect of terrain slope on marginal burning in shrub fuel beds . Proc. Combust. Instit. , 31 , 2547 – 2555 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zukoski , E.E. 1975 . Convective Flows Associated with Room Fires . Semi Annual Progress Report, National Science Foundation Grant No. GI 31892 × 1, Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA .
   Google Scholar
• Zukoski , E.E. 1995 . Properties of fire plumes . In Cox , G. (Ed.) , Combustion Fundamentals of Fire , Academic Press , London , pp. 101 – 215 .
   Google Scholar
• Zukoski , E.E. , Kubota , T. , and Cetegen , B. 1981 . Entrainment in fire plumes . Fire Safety J. , 3 , 107 – 121 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar