5,871
Views
29
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Utilising psychophysical techniques to investigate the effects of age, typeface design, size and display polarity on glance legibility

, , , , &
Pages 1377-1391 | Received 21 Aug 2015, Accepted 26 Dec 2015, Published online: 04 Mar 2016

References

  • Akutsu, H., G. E. Legge, J. A. Ross, and K. J. Schuebel. 1991. “Psychophysics of Reading – X. Effects of Age-Related Changes in Vision.” Journal of Gerontology 46 (6): P325–P331.10.1093/geronj/46.6.P325
  • Ann Atchley, Ruth, Laura Halderman, Kristin Kwasny, and Lori Buchanan. 2003. “The Processing of Pseudohomophones by Adults with a History of Developmental Language Disabilities.” Brain and Cognition 53 (2): 139–144. doi:10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00096-4.
  • Aten, T. R., L. Gugerty, and R. A. Tyrrell. 2002. “Legibility of Words Rendered Using CleartypeTM.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 46 (17): 1684–1687. doi:10.1177/154193120204601733.
  • Bakeman, Roger. 2005. “Recommended Effect Size Statistics for Repeated Measures Designs.” Behavior Research Methods 37 (3): 379–384.10.3758/BF03192707
  • Beier, Sofie, and Kevin Larson. 2010. “Design Improvements for Frequently Misrecognized Letters 1.” Information Design Journal 18 (2): 118–137. doi:10.1075/idj.18.2.03bei.
  • Bessemans, Ann. 2012. Type Design for Children with Low Vision. Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands.
  • Bosse, Marie-Line, Marie Josèphe Tainturier, and Sylviane Valdois. 2007. “Developmental Dyslexia: The Visual Attention Span Deficit Hypothesis.” Cognition 104 (2): 198–230. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.05.009.
  • Bouma, H. 1970. “Interaction Effects in Parafoveal Letter Recognition.” Nature 226 (5241): 177–178.10.1038/226177a0
  • Brainard, David H. 1997. “The Psychophysics Toolbox.” Spatial Vision 10 (4): 433–436. doi:10.1163/156856897X00357.
  • Burt, Jennifer S., and Mary B. Fury. 2000. “Spelling in Adults: The Role of Reading Skills and Experience.” Reading and Writing 13 (1/2): 1–30. doi:10.1023/A:1008071802996.
  • Byrnes, James P., David C. Miller, and William D. Schafer. 1999. “Gender Differences in Risk Taking: A Meta-Analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 125 (3): 367–383.10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.367
  • Carter, H. 1984. “Optical Scale in Type Founding.” Printing Historical Society Bulletin 13: 144–148.
  • Cerella, John, and James L. Fozard. 1984. “Lexical Access and Age.” Developmental Psychology 20 (2): 235–243.10.1037/0012-1649.20.2.235
  • Chahine, Nadine. 2012. Reading Arabic: Legibility Studies for the Arabic Script. Faculty of the Humanities, Leiden University. http://hdl.handle.net/1887/20022.
  • Chaparro, B. S., A. D. Shaikh, A. Chaparroa, and E. C. Merkle. 2010. “Comparing the Legibility of Six ClearType Typefaces to Verdana and Times New Roman.” Information Design Journal 18 (1): 36–49. doi:10.1075/idj.18.1.04cha.
  • Chen, Chien-Hsiung, and Yu-Hung Chien. 2005. “Reading Chinese Text on a Small Screen with RSVP.” Displays 26 (3): 103–108.
  • Coltheart, M. 1980. “Iconic Memory and Visible Persistence.” Perception & Psychophysics 27 (3): 183–228.
  • DeJoy, D. M. 1992. “An Examination of Gender Differences in Traffic Accident Risk Perception.” Accident Analysis & Prevention 24 (3): 237–246.
  • Devaney, K. O., and H. A. Johnson. 1980. “Neuron Loss in the Aging Visual Cortex of Man.” Journal of Gerontology 35 (6): 836–841.10.1093/geronj/35.6.836
  • Dobres, J., N. Chahine, B. Reimer, D. Gould, and N. Zhao. 2016. “The Effects of Chinese Typeface Design, Stroke Weight, and Contrast Polarity on Glance Based Legibility.” Displays 41 (C): 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.displa.2015.12.001.
  • Evans, Leonard, and Paul Wasielewski. 1983. “Risky Driving Related to Driver and Vehicle Characteristics.” Accident Analysis & Prevention 15 (2): 121–136.
  • Facoetti, Andrea, Anna Noemi Trussardi, Milena Ruffino, Maria Luisa Lorusso, Carmen Cattaneo, Raffaella Galli, Massimo Molteni, and Marco Zorzi. 2010. “Multisensory Spatial Attention Deficits Are Predictive of Phonological Decoding Skills in Developmental Dyslexia.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22 (5): 1011–1025. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21232.
  • Faubert, Jocelyn. 2002. “Visual Perception and Aging.” Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie Expérimentale 56 (3): 164–176.10.1037/h0087394
  • Fox, D., B. S. Chaparro, and E. Merkle. 2007. “Examining Legibility of the Letter ‘E’ and Number ‘0’ Using Classification Tree Analysis.” Software Usability Research Laboratory, Wichita State University. Accessed June 14. http://usabilitynews.org/examining-legibility-of-the-letter-e-and-number-0-using-classification-tree-analysis/
  • Gould, J. D., L. Alfaro, V. Barnes, R. Finn, N. Grischkowsky, and A. Minuto. 1987. “Reading is Slower from CRT Displays than from Paper: Attempts to Isolate a Single-Variable Explanation.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 29 (3): 269–299.
  • Gould, John D., Lizette Alfaro, Rich Finn, Brian Haupt, and Angela Minuto. 1987. “Reading from CRT Displays Can Be as Fast as Reading from Paper.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 29 (5): 497–517.
  • Govenlock, Stanley W., Christopher P. Taylor, Allison B. Sekuler, and Patrick J. Bennett. 2009. “The Effect of Aging on the Orientational Selectivity of the Human Visual System.” Vision Research 49 (1): 164–172. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2008.10.004.
  • Grainger, J., and J. Segui. 1990. “Neighborhood Frequency Effects in Visual Word Recognition: A Comparison of Lexical Decision and Masked Identification Latencies.” Perception & Psychophysics 47 (2): 191–198.
  • Greene, H. A., and D. J. Madden. 1987. “Adult Age Differences in Visual Acuity, Stereopsis, and Contrast Sensitivity.” Optometry and Vision Science 64 (10): 749–753.10.1097/00006324-198710000-00006
  • Gugerty, Leo, Richard A. Tyrrell, Thomas R. Aten, and K. Andy Edmonds. 2004. “The Effects of Subpixel Addressing on Users’ Performance and Preferences during Reading-Related Tasks.” ACM Transactions on Applied Perception 1 (2): 81–101.10.1145/1024083
  • Habak, C., and J. Faubert. 2000. “Larger Effect of Aging on the Perception of Higher-Order Stimuli.” Vision Research 40 (8): 943–950.10.1016/S0042-6989(99)00235-7
  • He, Yingchen, Gordon E. Legge, and Yu Deyue. 2013. “Sensory and Cognitive Influences on the Training-Related Improvement of Reading Speed in Peripheral Vision.” Journal of Vision 13 (7): 1–14. doi:10.1167/13.7.14.
  • Huang, Ding-Long, Pei-Luen Patrick Rau, and Ying Liu. 2009. “Effects of Font Size, Display Resolution and Task Type on Reading Chinese Fonts from Mobile Devices.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 39 (1): 81–89.10.1016/j.ergon.2008.09.004
  • International Standards Organization. 2007. Road Vehicles – Ergonomic Aspects of Transport Information and Control Systems – Occlusion Method to Assess Visual Demand due to the Use of in-Vehicle Systems. ISO 16673. Geneva: International Standards Organization.
  • International Standards Organization. 2009. Ergonomic Aspects of Transport Information and Control Systems. ISO 15008. Geneva: International Standards Organization.
  • Laubrock, Jochen, Reinhold Kliegl, and Ralf Engbert. 2006. “SWIFT Explorations of Age Differences in Eye Movements during Reading.” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 30 (6): 872–884. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.013.
  • Leek, Marjorie R. 2001. “Adaptive Procedures in Psychophysical Research.” Perception & Psychophysics 63 (8): 1279–1292.
  • Legge, G. E., and C. A. Bigelow. 2011. “Does Print Size Matter for Reading? A Review of Findings from Vision Science and Typography.” Journal of Vision 11 (5): 1–22. doi:10.1167/11.5.8.
  • Legge, G. E., J. S. Mansfield, and S. T. Chung. 2001. “Psychophysics of Reading.” Vision Research 41 (6): 725–743.10.1016/S0042-6989(00)00295-9
  • Legge, G. E., D. G. Pelli, G. S. Rubin, and M. M. Schleske. 1985. “Psychophysics of Reading – I. Normal Vision.” Vision Research 25 (2): 239–252.10.1016/0042-6989(85)90117-8
  • Levitt, H. 1971. “Transformed Up-Down Methods in Psychoacoustics.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 49 (2B): 467–477. doi:10.1121/1.1912375.
  • McConkie, George W., and Keith Rayner. 1975. “The Span of the Effective Stimulus during a Fixation in Reading.” Perception & Psychophysics 17 (6): 578–586. doi:10.3758/BF03203972.
  • Medler, D. A., and J. R. Binder, eds. 2005. MCWord. Accessed November 13. http://www.neuro.mcw.edu/mcword/
  • Merkle, Edgar C., and Barbara S. Chaparro. 2009. “Using Sunflower Plots and Classification Trees to Study Typeface Legibility.” Case Studies in Business, Industry and Government Statistics 2 (2): 92–98.
  • Meyer, D. E., and R. W. Schvaneveldt. 1971. “Facilitation in Recognizing Pairs of Words: Evidence of a Dependence between Retrieval Operations.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 90 (2): 227–234.10.1037/h0031564
  • Montani, Veronica, Andrea Facoetti, and Marco Zorzi. 2014. “The Effect of Decreased Interletter Spacing on Orthographic Processing.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 22 (3): 824–832. doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0728-9.
  • Moret-Tatay, Carmen, and Manuel Perea. 2011. “Do Serifs Provide an Advantage in the Recognition of Written Words?” Journal of Cognitive Psychology 23 (5): 619–624. doi:10.1080/20445911.2011.546781.
  • Olejnik, Stephen, and James Algina. 2003. “Generalized Eta and Omega Squared Statistics: Measures of Effect Size for Some Common Research Designs.” Psychological Methods 8 (4): 434–447. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.8.4.434.
  • Olson, R. K., R. Kliegl, B. J. Davidson, and G. Foltz. 1985. “Individual and Developmental Differences in Reading Disability.” In Reading Research, edited by G. E. MacKinnon, and T. G. Walter (Vol. 4, pp. 1–65). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
  • Owsley, Cynthia. 2011. “Aging and Vision.” Vision Research 51 (13): 1610–1622. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2010.10.020.
  • Paterson, Kevin B., Victoria A. McGowan, and Timothy R. Jordan. 2013. “Filtered Text Reveals Adult Age Differences in Reading: Evidence from Eye Movements.” Psychology and Aging 28 (2): 352–364. doi:10.1037/a0030350.
  • Pelli, D. G. 1997. “The Video Toolbox Software for Visual Psychophysics: Transforming Numbers into Movies.” Spatial Vision 10 (4): 437–442.10.1163/156856897X00366
  • Pelli, Denis G., and Katharine A. Tillman. 2008. “The Uncrowded Window of Object Recognition.” Nature Neuroscience 11 (10): 1129–1135. doi:10.1038/nn.2187.
  • Pelli, D. G., K. A. Tillman, J. Freeman, M. Su, T. D. Berger, and N. J. Majaj. 2007. “Crowding and Eccentricity Determine Reading Rate.” Journal of Vision 7 (2): 1–36. doi:10.1167/7.2.20.
  • Perea, Manuel, and Pablo Gomez. 2012. “Increasing Interletter Spacing Facilitates Encoding of Words.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 19 (2): 332–338. doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0214-6.
  • Perea, Manuel, Carmen Moret-Tatay, and Pablo Gómez. 2011. “The Effects of Interletter Spacing in Visual-Word Recognition.” Acta Psychologica 137 (3): 345–351. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.04.003.
  • Piepenbrock, C., S. Mayr, and A. Buchner. 2013. “Positive Display Polarity is Particularly Advantageous for Small Character Sizes: Implications for Display Design.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 56 (5): 942–951. doi:10.1177/0018720813515509.
  • Poulton, E. C. 1972. “Size, Style, and Vertical Spacing in the Legibility of Small Typefaces.” Journal of Applied Psychology 56 (2): 156–161.10.1037/h0032670
  • R Core Team. 2015. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna. http://www.R-project.org/.
  • Ratcliff, Roger, and Gail McKoon. 2008. “The Diffusion Decision Model: Theory and Data for Two-Choice Decision Tasks.” Neural Computation 20 (4): 873–922. doi:10.1162/neco.2008.12-06-420.
  • Ratcliff, R., A. Thapar, P. Gomez, and G. McKoon. 2004. “A Diffusion Model Analysis of the Effects of Aging in the Lexical-Decision Task.” Psychology and Aging 19 (2): 278–289. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.278.
  • Rayner, Keith. 1998. “Eye Movements in Reading and Information Processing: 20 Years of Research.” Psychological Bulletin 124 (3): 372–422. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372.
  • Rayner, Keith, Erik D. Reichle, Michael J. Stroud, Carrick C. Williams, and Alexander Pollatsek. 2006. “The Effect of Word Frequency, Word Predictability, and Font Difficulty on the Eye Movements of Young and Older Readers.” Psychology and Aging 21 (3): 448–465. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.3.448.
  • Reich, L. N., and H. E. Bedell. 2000. “Relative Legibility and Confusions of Letter Acuity Targets in the Peripheral and Central Retina.” Optometry & Vision Science 77 (5): 270–275.
  • Reimer, Bryan, Bruce Mehler, Jonathan Dobres, Joseph F. Coughlin, Steve Matteson, David Gould, Nadine Chahine, and Vladimir Levantovsky. 2014. “Assessing the Impact of Typeface Design in a Text-Rich Automotive User Interface.” Ergonomics 57 (11): 1643–1658. doi:10.1080/00140139.2014.940000.
  • Sanford, E. C. 1888. “The Relative Legibility of the Small Letters.” The American Journal of Psychology 1 (3): 402–435.10.2307/1411012
  • Sanocki, Thomas, and Mary C. Dyson. 2011. “Letter Processing and Font Information during Reading: Beyond Distinctiveness, Where Vision Meets Design.” Attention, Perception & Psychophysics 74 (1): 132–145. doi:10.3758/s13414-011-0220-9.
  • Senders, J. W., A. B. Kristofferson, W. H. Levison, C. W. Dietrich, and J. L. Ward. 1966. An Investigation of Automobile Driver Information Processing. BBN Technical Report 1335. Cambridge, MA: Bolt Beranek and Newman.
  • Senders, John W., A. B. Kristofferson, W. H. Levison, C. W. Dietrich, and J. L. Ward. 1967. “The Attentional Demand of Automobile Driving.” Highway Research Record 195: 15–33.
  • Sheedy, James E., Manoj V. Subbaram, Aaron B. Zimmerman, and John R. Hayes. 2005. “Text Legibility and the Letter Superiority Effect.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 47 (4): 797–815.10.1518/001872005775570998
  • Sheedy, Jim, Yu-Chi Tai, Manoj Subbaram, Sowjanya Gowrisankaran, and John Hayes. 2008. “ClearType Sub-Pixel Text Rendering: Preference, Legibility and Reading Performance.” Displays 29 (2): 138–151. doi:10.1016/j.displa.2007.09.016.
  • Shieh, K. K., and C. C. Lin. 2000. “Effects of Screen Type, Ambient Illumination, and Color Combination on VDT Visual Performance and Subjective Preference.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 26 (5): 527–536.10.1016/S0169-8141(00)00025-1
  • Slattery, Timothy J., and Keith Rayner. 2009. “The Influence of Text Legibility on Eye Movements during Reading.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 24 (8): 1129–1148. doi:10.1002/acp.1623.
  • Snowden, R. J., and E. Kavanagh. 2006. “Motion Perception in the Ageing Visual System: Minimum Motion, Motion Coherence, and Speed Discrimination Thresholds.” Perception 35 (1): 9–24.10.1068/p5399
  • Stanovich, K. E. 1982. “Individual Differences in the Cognitive Processes of Reading: II. Text-Level Processes.” Journal of Learning Disabilities 15 (9): 549–554. doi:10.1177/002221948201500908.
  • Stevens, S. S. 1958. “Problems and Methods of Psychophysics.” Psychological Bulletin 55 (4): 177–196.10.1037/h0044251
  • Taptagaporn, S., and S. Saito. 1990. “How Display Polarity and Lighting Conditions Affect the Pupil Size of VDT Operators.” Ergonomics 33 (2): 201–208. doi:10.1080/00140139008927110.
  • Uchida, Naoshige, Adam Kepecs, and Zachary F. Mainen. 2006. “Seeing at a Glance, Smelling in a Whiff: Rapid Forms of Perceptual Decision Making.” Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 7 (6): 485–491. doi:10.1038/nrn1933.
  • Vinot, J. L., and S. Athenes. 2012. “Legible, Are You Sure?: An Experimentation-Based Typographical Design in Safety-Critical Context.” Presented at the Proceedings of the 2012 ACM Annual Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York: ACM, 2287–2296.
  • Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan, Roger Ratcliff, Pablo Gomez, and Gail McKoon. 2008. “A Diffusion Model Account of Criterion Shifts in the Lexical Decision Task.” Journal of Memory and Language 58 (1): 140–159. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2007.04.006.
  • Wang, An-Hsiang, and Cheng-Hsun Chen. 2003. “Effects of Screen Type, Chinese Typography, Text/Background Color Combination, Speed, and Jump Length for VDT Leading Display on Users’ Reading Performance.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 31 (4): 249–261.10.1016/S0169-8141(02)00188-9
  • Wang, Lin, Hitomi Sato, Pei-Luen Patrick Rau, Kaori Fujimura, Qin Gao, and Yoko Asano. 2008. “Chinese Text Spacing on Mobile Phones for Senior Citizens.” Educational Gerontology 35 (1): 77–90.10.1080/03601270802491122
  • Watson, A. B., and D. G. Pelli. 1983. “QUEST: A Bayesian Adaptive Psychometric Method.” Perception & Psychophysics 33 (2): 113–120.
  • Yan, Guoli, Hongjie Tian, Xuejun Bai, and Keith Rayner. 2006. “The Effect of Word and Character Frequency on the Eye Movements of Chinese Readers.” British Journal of Psychology 97 (2): 259–268. doi:10.1348/000712605X70066.