Improving visual search in instruction manuals using pictogramsFootnote^*

* The research was conducted at the Faculty of Graphic Arts, Getaldićeva 2, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.

References

• Akhmadeeva, L., I. Tukhvatullin, and B. Veytsman. 2012. “Do Serifs Help in Comprehension of Printed Text? An Experiment with Cyrillic Readers.” Vision Research 65: 21–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, J. R. 2004. Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications. 6th ed. New York: Worth.
   Google Scholar
• Ans, M., and A. Tricot. 2009. “Information Seeking in Documents by Pilots: Assessment of the Reliability Problems Caused by the Transition from Paper to Electronic.” Safety Science 47 (9): 1241–1247.10.1016/j.ssci.2009.03.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araujo, C., E. Kowler, and M. Pavel. 2001. “Eye Movements during Visual Search: The Costs of Choosing the Optimal Path.” Vision Research 41 (25–26): 3613–3625.10.1016/S0042-6989(01)00196-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arditi, A., and J. Cho. 2007. “Letter Case and Text Legibility in Normal and Low Vision.” Vision Research 47 (19): 2499–2505.10.1016/j.visres.2007.06.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Askwall, S. 1985. “Computer Supported Reading vs Reading Text on Paper: A Comparison of Two Reading Situations.” International Journal of Man-Machine Studies 22 (4): 425–439.10.1016/S0020-7373(85)80048-1
   Google Scholar
• Aspillaga, M. 1997. “Perceptual Foundations in the Design of Visual Displays.” Computers in Human Behavior 12 (4): 587–600.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bateman, J., T. Kamps, J. Kleinz, and K. Reichenberger. 2001. “Towards Constructive Text, Diagram, and Layout Generation for Information Presentation.” Computational Linguistics 27 (3): 409–449.10.1162/089120101317066131
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruyas, M. P., B. Le Breton, and A. Pauzié. 1998. “Ergonomic Guidelines for the Design of Pictorial Information.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 21 (5): 407–413.10.1016/S0169-8141(96)00081-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke, M., A. Hornof, E. Nilsen, and N. Gorman. 2005. “High-Cost Banner Blindness.” ACM Transactions on Computer–Human Interaction 12 (4): 423–445.10.1145/1121112
   Google Scholar
• Camnalbur, M., and D. Mutlu. 2011. “Review about Font Typography on Instructional Design.” 5th International Computer & Instructional Technologies Symposium, Elaziğ, Turkey, September 22–24.
   Google Scholar
• Carter, R., B. Day, and P. B. Meggs. 1993. Typographic Design: Form and Communication. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Celuch, K. G., J. A. Lust, and L. S. Showers. 1995. “An Investigation of the Relationship between Self-Efficacy and the Communication Effectiveness of Product Manual Formats.” Journal of Business and Psychology 9 (3): 241–252.10.1007/BF02230968
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, A. H., and K. W. Chan. 2013. “Effects of Prospective-User Factors and Sign Design Features on Guessability of Pharmaceutical Pictograms.” Patient Education and Counseling 90 (2): 268–275.10.1016/j.pec.2012.10.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, A. H. S., and A. W. Y. Ng. 2010. “Investigation of Guessability of Industrial Safety Signs: Effects of Prospective-User Factors and Cognitive Sign Features.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 40 (6): 689–697.10.1016/j.ergon.2010.05.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, R. C., and R. E. Mayer. 2011. E-Learning and the Science of Instruction. San Francisco: Wiley.10.1002/9781118255971
   Google Scholar
• Connor, C. E., H. E. Egeth, and S. Yantis. 2004. “Visual Attention: Bottom-up versus Top-down.” Current Biology 14 (19): R850–R852.10.1016/j.cub.2004.09.041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowley, J. A., and M. S. Wogalter. 2011. “Reading Pages of a Consumer Product Manual Text and Warnings Effects of Format Salience and Visual Cues on Eye Movements.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 55 (1): 1773–1777. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Davies, S., H. Haines, B. Norris, and J. R. Wilson. 1998. “Safety Pictograms: Are They Getting the Message across?” Applied Ergonomics 29 (1): 15–23.10.1016/S0003-6870(97)00021-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dyson, M. C. 2004. “How Physical Text Layout Affects Reading from Screen.” Behaviour & Information Technology 23 (6): 377–393.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dyson, M. C., and M. Haselgrove. 2001. “The Influence of Reading Speed and Line Length on the Effectiveness of Reading from Screen.” International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 54 (4): 585–612.10.1006/ijhc.2001.0458
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dyson, M. C., and G. J. Kipping. 1997. “The Legibility of Screen Formats: Are Three Columns Better than One?” Computers & Graphics 21 (6): 703–712.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egeth, H. E., and S. Yantis. 1997. “Visual Attention: Control, Representation, and Time Course.” Annual Review of Psychology 48 (1): 269–297.10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.269
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feiereisen, S., V. Wong, and A. J. Broderick. 2008. “Analogies and Mental Simulations in Learning for Really New Products: The Role of Visual Attention.” Journal of Product Innovation Management 25 (6): 593–607.10.1111/jpim.2008.25.issue-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman, J. 1999. “The Role of Objects in Perceptual Grouping.” Acta Psychologica 102 (2–3): 137–163.10.1016/S0001-6918(98)00054-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Findlay, J. M. 2004. “Eye Scanning and Visual Search.” In The Interface of Language, Vision, and Action: Eye Movements and the Visual World, edited by J. M. Henderson and F. Ferreira, 135–159. New York: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Galitz, W. O. 2002. The Essential Guide to User Interface Design. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, J. H., and X. P. Kotval. 1999. “Computer Interface Evaluation Using Eye Movements: Methods and Constructs.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 24 (6): 631–645.10.1016/S0169-8141(98)00068-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartley, J., P. Burnhill, and L. Davis. 1978. “The Effects of Line Length and Paragraph Denotation on the Retrieval of Information from Prose Text.” Visible Language 12 (2): 183–194.
   Google Scholar
• Havig, P., and F. M. Ng. 2007. “Scientific and Graphic Design Foundations for C2.” 12th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium, Newport, Rhode Island, June 19–21.
   Google Scholar
• Healy, A. F., V. I. Schneider, B. McCormick, D. M. Fierman, C. J. Buck-Gengler, and I. Barshi. 2013. “Which Modality is Best for Presenting Navigation Instructions?” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 2 (3): 192–199.10.1016/j.jarmac.2013.07.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, J. M., J. R. Brockmole, M. S. Castelhano, and M. Mack. 2007. “Visual Saliency Does Not Account for Eye Movements during Visual Search in Real-World Scenes.” In Eye Movements, edited by R. P. G. Van Gompel, M. H. Fischer, W. S. Murray, and R. I. Hill, 537–562. Amsterdam: Elsevier.10.1016/B978-008044980-7/50027-6
   Google Scholar
• Holsanova, J., N. Holmberg, and K. Holmqvist. 2009. “Reading Information Graphics: The Role of Spatial Contiguity and Dual Attentional Guidance.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 23 (9): 1215–1226.10.1002/acp.v23:9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong, W., J. Y. Thong, and K. Y. Tam. 2004. “Designing Product Listing Pages on E-Commerce Websites: An Examination of Presentation Mode and Information Format.” International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 61 (4): 481–503.10.1016/j.ijhcs.2004.01.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestegge, L., and R. Radach. 2012. “Visual and Memory Search in Complex Environments: Determinants of Eye Movements and Search Performance.” Ergonomics 55 (9): 1009–1027.10.1080/00140139.2012.689372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyönä, J. 2010. “The Use of Eye Movements in the Study of Multimedia Learning.” Learning and Instruction 20 (2): 172–176.10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krum, R. 2013. Cool Infographics: Effective Communication with Data Visualization and Design. Indianapolis: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Lam, S. Y., A. W. L. Chau, and T. J. Wong. 2007. “Thumbnails as Online Product Displays: How Consumers Process Them.” Journal of Interactive Marketing 21 (1): 36–59.10.1002/dir.20073
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laughery, K. R., and S. L. Young. 1991. “Consumer Product Warnings: Design Factors That Influence Noticeability.” In Proceedings of the 11th Congress of the International Ergonomics Association, 1104–1106. London: Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Laughery, K. R., S. L. Young, K. P. Vaubel, and J. W. Brelsford Jr. 1993. “The Noticeability of Warnings on Alcoholic Beverage Containers.” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 12 (1): 38–56.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legge, G. E., and C. A. Bigelow. 2011. “Does Print Size Matter for Reading? A Review of Findings from Vision Science and Typography.” Journal of Vision 11 (5): 8, 1–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehtonen, E., O. Lappi, H. Kotkanen, and H. Summala. 2013. “Look-Ahead Fixations in Curve Driving.” Ergonomics 56 (1): 34–44.10.1080/00140139.2012.739205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lesch, M. F., W. R. Powell, W. J. Horrey, and M. S. Wogalter. 2013. “The Use of Contextual Cues to Improve Warning Symbol Comprehension: Making the Connection for Older Adults.” Ergonomics 56 (8): 1264–1279.10.1080/00140139.2013.802019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, C. J., S. Kemper, and J. McDowd. 2009. “The Use of Illustration to Improve Older Adults’ Comprehension of Health-Related Information: Is It Helpful?” Patient Education and Counseling 76 (2): 283–288.10.1016/j.pec.2009.01.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Y. C., S. J. Lu, Y. C. Weng, and H. Su. 2010. “Designing Pictogram for Food Portion Size.” International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 4 (12): 733–738.
   Google Scholar
• Lloyd, R. 1997. “Visual Search Processes Used in Map Reading.” Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization 34 (1): 11–32.10.3138/F342-1217-827R-0777
   Google Scholar
• Lohse, G. L. 1997. “Consumer Eye Movement Patterns on Yellow Pages Advertising.” Journal of Advertising 26 (1): 61–73.10.1080/00913367.1997.10673518
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohse, G. L., and D. J. Wu. 2001. “Eye Movement Patterns on Chinese Yellow Pages Advertising.” Electronic Markets 11 (2): 87–96.
   Google Scholar
• Lonsdale, M., M. C. Dyson, and L. Reynolds. 2006. “Reading in Examination-Type Situations: The Effects of Text Layout on Performance.” Journal of Research in Reading 29 (4): 433–453.10.1111/jrir.2006.29.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcus, A. 1995. “Principles of Effective Visual Communication for Graphical User Interface Design.” In Readings in Human-Computer Interaction: Toward the Year 2000, edited by R. M. Baecker, J. Grudin, W. A. S. Buxton, and S. Greenberg, 425–441. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
   Google Scholar
• Mason, L., M. C. Tornatora, and P. Pluchino. 1998. “Do Fourth Graders Integrate Text and Picture in Processing and Learning from an Illustrated Science Text? Evidence from Eye-Movement Patterns.” Computers & Education 60 (1): 95–109.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayer, R. E., and R. Moreno. 1998. “A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning: Implications for Design Principles.” Journal of Educational Psychology 91 (2): 358–368.
   Google Scholar
• Mayer, R. E., and R. Moreno. 2002. “Aids to Computer-Based Multimedia Learning.” Learning and Instruction 12 (1): 107–119.10.1016/S0959-4752(01)00018-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride, D. M., and Barbara Anne Dosher. 2002. “A Comparison of Conscious and Automatic Memory Processes for Picture and Word Stimuli: A Process Dissociation Analysis.” Consciousness and Cognition 11 (3): 423–460.10.1016/S1053-8100(02)00007-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medina, J. 2008. Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School. Seattle: Pear Press.
   Google Scholar
• van der Meij, H. 2008. “Designing for User Cognition and Affect in Software Instructions.” Learning and Instruction 18 (1): 18–29.10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.08.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mertens, A., C. Nick, S. Krüger, and C. M. Schlick. 2012. “The Relevance of Temporal Iconicity with Instruction Manuals for Elderly Users.” Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation 41: 357–361.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mintzer, M. Z., and J. G. Snodgrass. 1999. “The Picture Superiority Effect: Support for the Distinctiveness Model.” The American Journal of Psychology 112 (1): 113–146.10.2307/1423627
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montoro, P. R., D. Luna, and J. J. Ortells. 2014. “Subliminal Gestalt Grouping: Evidence of Perceptual Grouping by Proximity and Similarity in Absence of Conscious Perception.” Consciousness and Cognition 25: 1–8.10.1016/j.concog.2014.01.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, P., and C. Fitz. 1993. “Using Gestalt Theory to Teach Document Design and Graphics.” Technical Communication Quarterly 2 (4): 389–410.10.1080/10572259309364549
   Google Scholar
• Muter, P. 1996. “Interface Design and Optimization of Reading of Continuous Text.” In Cognitive Aspects of Electronic Text Processing (Advances in Discourse Processes), edited by H. van Oosterndorp and S. de Mul, 161–180. Nortwood, NJ: Ablex.
   Google Scholar
• Muter, P., and P. Maurutto. 1991. “Reading and Skimming from Computer Screens and Books: The Paperless Office Revisited?” Behaviour & Information Technology 10 (4): 257–266.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naumann, A. B. 2009. “Processing Text on the Web: The Construction of Mental Representations.” The Ergonomics Open Journal 2: 58–63.10.2174/1875934300902010058
   Google Scholar
• Noyes, J. M., and K. J. Garland. 2008. “Computer- vs. Paper-Based Tasks: Are They Equivalent?” Ergonomics 51 (9): 1352–1375.10.1080/00140130802170387
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paivio, A. 1983. “The Empirical Case for Dual Coding.” In Imagery, Memory, and Cognition: Essays in Honor of Allan Paivio, edited by J. C. Yuille, 9–33. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Pieters, R., and M. Wedel. 2004. “Attention Capture and Transfer in Advertising: Brand, Pictorial, and Text-Size Effects.” Journal of Marketing 68 (2): 36–50.10.1509/jmkg.68.2.36.27794
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ponce, H. R., and R. E. Mayer. 2014. “An Eye Movement Analysis of Highlighting and Graphic Organizer Study Aids for Learning from Expository Text.” Computers in Human Behavior 41: 21–32.10.1016/j.chb.2014.09.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poole, A., and L. J. Ball. 2006. “Eye Tracking in Human–Computer Interaction and Usability Research: Current Status and Future Prospects.” In Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, edited by C. Ghaoui, 211–219. Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
   Google Scholar
• Powell, A. T. 2002. Web Design: The Complete Reference. Osborne: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Rayner, K., C. M. Rotello, A. J. Stewart, J. Keir, and S. A. Duffy. 2001. “Integrating Text and Pictorial Information: Eye Movements When Looking at Print Advertisements.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 7 (3): 219–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rouet, J. F., and B. Coutelet. 2008. “The Acquisition of Document Search Strategies in Grade School Students.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 22 (3): 389–406.10.1002/(ISSN)1099-0720
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryu, Y. S., T. Suh, and S. Dozier. 2009. “Effects of Design Elements in Magazine Advertisements.” In Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics, edited by D. Harris, 262–268. San Diego, CA: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Savelsbergh, G. J., J. Van der Kamp, A. M. Williams, and P. Ward. 2005. “Anticipation and Visual Search Behaviour in Expert Soccer Goalkeepers.” Ergonomics 48 (11–14): 1686–1697.10.1080/00140130500101346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schriver, K. A. 1997. Dynamics in Document Design: Creating Texts for Readers. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Switchenko, D. M. 1984. “Reading from CRT versus Paper: The CRT-Disadvantage Hypothesis Re-Examined.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 28 (5): 429–430.10.1177/154193128402800507
   Google Scholar
• Treisman, A. 1998. “Feature Binding, Attention and Object Perception.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 353 (1373): 1295–1306.10.1098/rstb.1998.0284
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treisman, A., and G. Gelade. 1980. “A Feature-Integration Theory of Attention.” Cognitive Psychology 12 (1): 97–136.10.1016/0010-0285(80)90005-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treisman, A., and J. Souther. 1985. “Search Asymmetry: A Diagnostic for Preattentive Processing of Separable Features.” Journal of Experimental Psychology. General 114 (3): 285–310.10.1037/0096-3445.114.3.285
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Underwood, G., P. Chapman, N. Brocklehurst, J. Underwood, and D. Crundall. 2003. “Visual Attention While Driving: Sequences of Eye Fixations Made by Experienced and Novice Drivers.” Ergonomics 46 (6): 629–646.10.1080/0014013031000090116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Q., P. Cavanagh, and M. Green. 1994. “Familiarity and Pop-Out in Visual Search.” Perception & Psychophysics 56 (5): 495–500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, H. F., P. Y. Wang, and H. C. Ting. 2012. “The Influence of Highlighting and Font Size on Visual Search Performance.” In Contemporary Ergonomics and Human Factors 2012: Proceedings of the International Conference on Ergonomics & Human Factors, edited by M. Anderson, 91–98. Blackpool: Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, Q., S. Yang, M. Liu, Z. Cao, and Q. Ma. 2014. “An Eye-Tracking Study of Website Complexity from Cognitive Load Perspective.” Decision Support Systems 62: 1–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ware, C. 2008. Visual Thinking: For Design. Burlington, MA: Morgan Kaufmann.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, R. 2003. The Non-Designer’s Design Book. Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wogalter, M. S., T. Barlow, and S. A. Murphy. 1995. “Compliance to Owner’s Manual Warnings: Influence of Familiarity and the Placement of a Supplemental Directive.” Ergonomics 38 (6): 1081–1091.10.1080/00140139508925175
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wogalter, M. S., R. J. Sojourner, and J. W. Brelsford. 1997. “Comprehension and Retention of Safety Pictorials.” Ergonomics 40 (5): 531–542.10.1080/001401397188017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, S. S. 2012. “Eye Movements on Restaurant Menus: A Revisitation on Gaze Motion and Consumer Scanpaths.” International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (3): 1021–1029.10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.12.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, F. Y., C. Y. Chang, W. R. Chien, Y. T. Chien, and Y. H. Tseng. 2013. “Tracking Learners’ Visual Attention during a Multimedia Presentation in a Real Classroom.” Computers & Education 62: 208–220.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, S. L., and M. S. Wogalter. 1988. “Memory of Instruction Manual Warnings: Effects of Pictorial Icons and Conspicuous Print.” Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting Proceedings 32 (15): 905–909.10.1518/107118188786761875
   Google Scholar
• Young, S. L., and M. S. Wogalter. 1990. “Comprehension and Memory of Instruction Manual Warnings: Conspicuous Print and Pictorial Icons.” Human Factors 32 (6): 637–649.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar